Class 




Book_3^- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



EDUCATIONAL METHODS 



On the Firing Line in Education. By 
A. J. Ladd. 

A Book foe Children in the First 
School Year. By L. S. Mills. 
Selections for Reading by the Direct 
Method. By L. S. Mills. 
College Study and College Life. By 
Bernard C. Ewer. 

American Education. By Sidney G. 
Fisher. 

The Philosophical Basis of Educa- 
tion. By Rolland Merritt Shreves. 
The Privilege of Education. By 
George L. Jackson. 

The Rural School and the Commu- 
nity. By Howard T. Lewis. 
Some Fundamental Verities in Edu- 
cation. By Maximilian P. E. Groszmann 
Education Among the Jews. By Paul 
E. Kretzmann. 

Public Education in Germany and in 
the United States. By L. R. Klemm. 
Problems of the Secondary Teacher. 
By William Jerusalem. Translated by 
Charles F. Sanders. 

The Project Method in Education. 
By Mendel E. Branom. 



RICHARD G. BADGER, PUBLISHER, BOSTON 



THE PROJECT METHOD 
IN EDUCATION 



BY 



MENDEL E. BRANOM 




ARTletV6Rnxnl 



BOSTON 

RICHARD G. BADGER 

THE GORHAM PRESS 



All Rights Reserved 



Copyright, 1919, by Richard G. Badger 

,0*1 



-£f fg/g 



V 



Made in the United States of America 



The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A, 
©CU529730 



TO 

E. GEORGE PAYNE 

PRINCIPAL OF HARRIS TEACHERS COLLEGE 

WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT HAS MADE 

THE BOOK POSSIBLE 






PREFACE 

Modern education attempts to direct the child's develop- 
ment in such a way that the child will be a worthy partici- 
pant of the institutional life of society ; at the same time, an 
attempt is made to develop the particular abilities of each 
child, since institutional progress is dependent upon indi- 
vidual initiative. Rapid evolutionary changes in society 
have emphasized the need of reevaluating and of reorganiz- 
ing subject matter. 

During the World War the children of the schools were 
called upon to assist in numerous ways. An unusual oppor- 
tunity was presented of motivating the school work through 
out-of-school activities. The effects were no less marked 
upon the teachers than upon the pupils. They were in- 
spired by the field of usefulness that was opened to them. 
Teachers, everywhere, now that the war is ended, are not 
satisfied to go back to the bookish, theoretical education 
of former days, but there is considerable uncertainty as to 
how the work can be motivated through the out-of-school 
activities of ordinary times. Other institutions, during the 
war, needed the cooperation of the schools; the schools now 
keenly need the assistance of other institutions. The prob- 
lem can be solved if teachers will make use of the various 
activities and materials of society. The chasm that has 
encircled the school, separating it from out-of-school activi- 
ties, forever should be blotted out. The teacher needs to 
be a practical man or woman, who can make use of the 
present in educating the child. The requirements are much 

3 



_>^— — 



4 Preface 

more exacting, but the recognition is correspondingly 
greater. 

In an effort to relate the world's work to the child's inter- 
ests and abilities, teachers of the manual arts have organized 
their work about situations, the manual efforts involved 
looking toward the completion of a particular unit of activ- 
ity, which, to the child, has some value that makes the work 
meaningful. A project in agriculture may involve the care 
of a garden; a project in manual training may involve the 
construction of a chair. It is natural that the term, project, 
should be applied to this unit of activity that results in 
concrete, objective achievement. Because of the rather aim- 
less, colorless, theoretical, impractical way that such sub- 
jects as history and geography have been handled, it has not 
been clear that projects likewise were involved. The manual 
projects were concerned with the refashioning of mate- 
rials of the present. The "bookish" subjects may be con- 
cerned with the activities of any time and of any place, and 
may be any number of steps removed from real, virile twen- 
tieth century living. The real nature of mental activities, 
apart from manual activities, therefore, is obscured. For 
concrete materials, man may substitute imagery, and with- 
out engaging in manual activity, may "think through" a 
complete unit of purposeful activity, the result of which is 
fundamental in influencing behavior. Such a unit is as char- 
acteristically a project as the manual unit. 

All educative effort, worthy of the name, affects behavior. 
An intellectualized, purposeful unit of activity is a project. 
All intellectualized work of the school definitely must be 
related to some project. The more effectively the material 
is selected and organized, the more economically will the 
development of the individual proceed. An efficient use of 
the project method requires that the materials shall be or- 



Preface 5 

ganized in such a way that, irrespective of whether manual 
activity is involved, the pupil will engage in a whole-hearted, 
purposeful unit of activity. All intellectual effort is worth 
while and is possible only because it functions in a proj- 
ect. The problem of the teacher is to bring about an intel- 
lectual development of the individual, along desirable lines, 
rapidly and efficiently. This can be done through the proper 
selection of material, and through its motivation in such a 
way that the child whole-heartedly attempts to overcome his 
difficulty, deriving much satisfaction not only because of the 
purpose and its realization, but also in the steps necessary 
to realize the purpose. A conscious recognition of projects 
as necessary units of human growth, in relation to the aims 
of education, should bring about a selection and reorganiza- 
tion of materials in such a way that maximum social and 
individual realization is effected. 

From the standpoint of the teacher, who is interested in 
the child's world, the interpretation of a difficulty, and the 
enlarged child's world as a result of the new experience, 
the unit of activity is a project, and the development goes 
on through the project method. From the standpoint of the 
pupil, the primary interest is in the difficulty or problem, 
and its interpretation, and the development goes on through 
the problem method. Whether the method of human develop- 
ment, therefore, shall be called the project or the problem 
method depends upon the viewpoint. 

This book has been written in response to numerous in- 
quiries that have come to the author, since the publication 
of several magazine articles on the project method, last 
year. It has been written, in addition to other heavy respon- 
sibilities, with the hope that it may "do its bit" in helping the 
teachers to meet the additional responsibilities and oppor- 
tunities that have come. The author wishes to thank his 



6 Preface 

colleagues of the Harris Teachers College, for their helpful 
encouragement in making this book possible. 

Harris Teachers College, Mendel E., Bbanom* 

St. Louis, Mo. 
April, 1919. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAG* 

Preface 8 

I. The Nature of the Project Method 11 

II. The Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 29 

III. The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts ... 50 

IV. The Social Basis for the Project Method ..... 63 
V. The Significance of Motivation 79 

VI. Teaching by Projects. 106 

VII. Learning by Projects / . 123 

VIII. The Project-Question 133 

IX. The Project-Exercise 141 

X. The Project-Problem 145 

XI. Manual or Physical Projects 171 

XII. Mental Projects not Involving Manual Activity . . . 192*- 

XIII. The Project Method in History 200 

XIV. The Project Method in Geography 220 

XV. The Reorganization of the Course of Study 240 

XVI. The Preparation of the Teacher 255 

References 267 

Index 279 



THE PROJECT METHOD IN EDUCATION 



THE PROJECT METHOD IN 
EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 

THE NATURE OF THE PROJECT METHOD 

The word "project" should represent a definite idea. 
The term project has not been coined to meet a special 
need in the pedagogical field for a new word to represent a 
nameless concept. For many years the word has been used 
by the English speaking public, although with its customary 
freedom the public has used the word in a variety of ways. 
According to Webster's New International Dictionary, the 
meaning of project as a noun is "that which is projected or 
designed; something intended or devised; a scheme; design; 
plan." The dominant idea involved is a consciously planned 
activity. The use of the word has been limited, by some 
people, to a proposed activity of considerable complexity 
and difficulty, while other people have used the term to 
include every type of intellectualized activity whether simple 
or complex, difficult or easy. The popular use of the word 
is indicated by the statements made in recent newspapers 
and magazines concerning "the project to extend a lane of 
ships from the United States to Europe," "the project to 
revive traffic on the Mississippi River," "the project to train 
disabled soldiers and sailors for suitable vocations," and 
"the project to establish a league of nations." A less gen- 
ii 



12 The Project Method m Education 

eral use of the word is indicated by statements concerning 
"the project of changing the time of the band concert," "the 
project requiring people to keep off the grass during dry 
weather," and "the project requiring the water to be cooled 
at all restaurants." Those who use the word in a general 
way to represent practically any type of intellectualized ac- 
tivity, also would include the types recognized by the more 
conservative groups. There is no fundamental difference 
of opinion concerning the meaning of the word, but the 
difference lies in the degree of elasticity that should be per- 
mitted. In every case a unit of purposeful, intellectualized 
activity is involved. 

Since the word project has been secured by educators 
from the general English vocabulary, it is natural that simi- 
lar misunderstandings with respect to its use should arise 
when attempts are made to associate the word with a defi- 
nite educational concept. "A present need in education, 
therefore, is to determine and agree upon whether the use 
of the term should be confined to situations involving complex 
intellectual difficulties, or whether its use should be extended 
so as to include the simplest of intellectual reactions. An 
agreement upon the use of the word will afford a common 
ground for discussion, thus avoiding apparent but not actual 
differences of opinion in reasoning that arise, if the same 
word to different individuals represents materially different 
or even slightly different concepts. If the broader meaning 
of the term project is agreed upon (a) the varying con- 
cepts of the term will be included, and (b) since the differ- 
ence between a simple intellectual difficulty and a complex 
intellectual difficulty is relative, and since these difficulties 
in reality are aspects of the same type of mental develop- 
ment, the word may well be used to include all types of intel- 
lectual difficulties, with the class further 1 subdivided into 
simple and complicated types. 



The Nature of the Project Method 13 

The pedagogical word "project" should meet a real need. 
The word project may be used as a part of the general 
vocabulary that is drawn upon in discussing pedagogical 
problems without delimiting the use of the word in a specific 
manner. If the word is to be included in the nomenclature 
of the science of teaching, however, a specific use should be 
assigned to it. If there is another word in the pedagogical 
terminology that serves the same purpose, the recognition 
of the word project as a scientific term is undesirable, as 
there will be duplication of functioning, and consequent waste 
of energy. 

In spite of striking similarities between man and other 
animals, it long has been recognized that there also are 
striking differences, particularly with respect to the possible 
activity level. In contradistinction to other animals, man 
can intellectualize his activities and direct them with a con- 
scious purpose. There is need in education for a term that 
can be applied to the class of intellectualized activities that 
differentiate man from other animals. All such activities 
are purposeful although the quality of purpose differs de- 
cidedly. Since the word project as now broadly used, out- 
side of educational circles, denotes this meaning, which finds 
its justification on the basis of need, with practically no vio- 
lence to the meaning of the word, it readily can be included 
in the pedagogical terminology, to denote a unit of intellec- 
tualized activity. 

The project method is the way of growth through which 
man is differentiated from other animals. All forms of life, 
plant and animal, instinctively make certain adjustments to 
their environments. These adjustments generally enable the 
life form to protect itself or to extend its influence in some 
positive fashion. A certain amount of development in making 
these successive instinctive adaptations occurs. Man, in 
common with other animals, makes these instinctive adjust- 



14 The Project Method m Education 

ments. If man's ability to develop were conditioned in the 
same way as that of other animals, practically no other 
method than the instinctive method would be possible. Since 
man can think, can plan, and can engage in sustained 
thought, he can intellectualize his activities in a way that 
somewhat abruptly differentiates him from other animals. 
Man develops, therefore, not only through the instinctive 
method, which is characteristic of the growth of all forms 
of animal life, but also through the project method, which 
is particularly reserved to man. 

A project involves a complete unit of activity. The 
derivative meaning of the word project is "to throw for- 
ward" (pro — forward and jacere — to throw). As used in 
the educational field, the word project involves the idea 
of a plan that is to be carried out, but also carries with it 
something of the derivative meaning in that, through the 
project, material looms up before the child for interpreta- 
tion, and the child, in grappling with this material, moves for- 
ward or grows. If a child seeks to meet a situation, he starts 
with the experiences and attitudes of his own life, and through 
his interpretation of the situation, increases or enriches his 
concepts. He starts with his own small world, or microcosm, 
and utilizes it in mastering situations by means of which 
his world becomes larger. Through the project the child 
relates himself to knowledge that is not a part of himself, 
but knowledge that is within his reach. He plunges out of 
his own world into the larger world, and returns with valu- 
able experiences. These experiences, in turn, become a part 
of his ever enlarging world by means of which he again can 
interpret. A young child, with limited experiences, neces- 
sarily will engage in projects of a simpler nature, but as his 
personal world becomes larger and made up of more varied 
material, the situations that he can meet become increasingly 



The Nature of the Project Method 15 

difficult. The concept denoted by the word project there- 
fore involves the various steps, starting with the personal 
world of the child, by means of which he interprets related 
unknown material, thus enlarging and modifying his world 
of experiences and attitudes. 

The significant development of the child, from the educa- 
tional standpoint, comes through the project method. The 
public schools have been established, not with the idea of 
preparing the children for an animal existence, but for the 
purpose of preparing them for a human existence. It fol- 
lows, therefore, that the activities of the school are concerned 
primarily with the project method, which is Nature's par- 
ticular way of developing the child as a human being. There 
is no other method. Mankind, in general, has found that his 
progress has been most rapid, when he intelligently has moved 
in the direction indicated by nature. To the extent that re- 
sults have been secured in school room practice, the project 
method should be given credit. If results apparently or 
actually have not been commensurate with the energy put 
forth, in some way or other the natural growth of the child 
has been blocked, either by surrounding him with material 
too far removed from his personal world, by surrounding 
him with material that possessed no unknown elements for 
his stage of development, or by placing insufficiently related 
unknown material within his grasp. If sufficient material 
properly is related to the child's world, and if the pupil keenly 
is interested in the material, rapid growth for a normal 
mind is inevitable. 

The project method may be abused (a) by keeping the 
child in the same environment. Undue repetition of material 
may be, and often is, deadening. In geography, it is an 
unfortunate but not altogether uncommon practice to dis- 
regard or to discount the work previously accomplished. A 



16 The Project Method in Education 

type study of the Eskimos may be made in the second grade. 
The third grade teacher may take up the same type and con- 
sider the same topics, concerning food, shelter and clothing. 
The teacher of one grade may consider the coal industry 
and the teacher of the succeeding grade may consider this 
industry practically in the same way. The teacher of his- 
tory may consider the biography of Abraham Lincoln, or 
the development of the Erie Canal in one grade, and a suc- 
ceeding teacher may consider the topics from a similar view- 
point. In the subjects of a mechanical nature, as arithmetic 
and spelling, a useless waste of time may be involved in drill- 
ing children upon material which they thoroughly have mas- 
tered. Many beautiful recitations are not so successful as 
a superficial examination indicates. A teacher, with respect 
to every recitation, should attempt to discriminate between 
what the children know and can do at the beginning of the 
recitation, and what they know and can do at the close. 
Each period should contribute something toward the definite 
enlarging of the child's experiences. 

The project method may be abused (b) by placing insuffi- 
cient, related, unknown material withm reach. Every adult 
can recall the restless days of childhood when he craved for 
something to do. The child energetically considers one thing 
after another, trying to find something to do that to him 
seems worth while and that he believes he can do. A child, 
discouraged in his quest, may lie down to take a nap, quickly 
to jump up to continue his search for something to do. In 
the vegetable world, a plant thrives best where it has avail- 
able needed nourishment in the right proportions and an 
otherwise suitable environment. Many dwarfed plants, 
perched on the rocky bluffs or in an otherwise unfavorable 
environment, make a pitiable struggle for an existence. No 
one can measure accurately the amount of retardation in de- 



The Nature of the Project Method 17 

velopment that has gone on among children simply because 
they were not supplied with a favorable environment for 
growth. In the school room the class may "finish" the mate- 
rial assigned, and practically waste the rest of the period. A 
larger proportion of the study period is lost because the 
child does not know what to do. He gives himself up to the 
pleasures of "anticipations and retrospections" of his own 
choosing, aimlessly and unsystematically pursuing the line 
of least resistance. The teacher may have developed with 
the children the distribution of rainfall in Missouri. She 
may have assigned them the task of indicating the unequal 
distribution on an outline map of the state. The study period 
may be twenty minutes long, but if the child finishes the map 
in ten minutes, he has one-half of the study period for "wool- 
gathering." 

The project method may be abused (c) by confronting 
the child with material that is too difficult. The mistake of 
surrounding the child with material beyond his ability to 
master is just as unfortunate as the mistake of making the 
environment too easy. An occasional attempt to master, 
ending in failure, may be justified because of the future op- 
portunities that may be suggested. One who fails habitually, 
however, not only becomes discouraged, but does not engage 
in sound, healthy growth. In the school room, if work as- 
signed is too difficult, the child either slavishly will engage 
in a study of form (words) without the represented content, 
or will neglect the assignment. If the child faithfully fol- 
lows directions, but cannot interpret, he is making little or 
no progress. His time, of great potential value, is being 
wasted. Because of his desire to succeed and his faith in 
the teacher, he may master the words, but real ideas are 
lacking. Another type of student loses interest, begins to 
question the value of school work, and if he is a typical wide 



18 The Project Method, in Education 

awake American boy, finds material for himself that he can 
and desires to interpret. The child cannot be blamed, but 
this independence of spirit, unfortunately, often removes the 
child from school influences at too early an age. 

The project method admits of growth either through good 
or bad experiences. The project method, it is to be noted, 
is exclusive of neither good nor bad experiences. The child 
may have experiences that socially are undesirable, but his 
horizon of knowledge thereby may be increased just as surely 
as if his experiences were the most valuable that society can 
give. The process in either case is the same. If the school 
loses its hold on the child, or does not afford him the desirable 
stimuli for growth, our active child will secure experiences 
elsewhere. In his haphazard wanderings he will come into 
environments that attract him. The experiences which he 
thus acquires may or may not be desirable. It is a particular 
function of the school to place the child in a favorable en- 
vironment that not only will stimulate him to action, but that 
will give him experiences and attitudes that are socially de- 
sirable. 

The project is concerned with four closely related parts. 
Four factors are related to the development of the child 
through the project method: (a) the macrocosm, or general 
world of knowledge; (b) the personal world of the child; (c) 
the movement of the child from his own world further into 
the larger world; and (d) the personal world of the child 
after he has met the new situation. 

(a) The general world of Knowledge is represented by 
the several institutions of society. The personal world of 
the child may be regarded as a variable that approaches a 
limit, the general world of knowledge, but never reaches 
it. The child starts with no demonstrable knowledge of 
this world. He first instinctively, and then consciously and 



The Nature of the Project Method 19 

purposely reacts to his environment. His life is occupied in 
making more and more of the racial experiences and present 
conditions his own. The life of social groups is represented 
by organizations known as institutions. These institutions 
are economic, social, political, religious, educational, and 
aesthetic. The present organization of society has not been 
secured without effort. For hundreds of years man has 
struggled with his environment. In the days of Abraham the 
institutions of society were not sharply differentiated. In 
the primitive responses to nature, the institutions were not 
recognized as separate entities. Although to-day there is 
a saying "that religion and politics will not mix," the noble 
patriarch Abraham drew no such distinction. With the 
evolution of society, these institutions gradually have grown 
apart from each other, although even to-day they have nu- 
merous bonds of relationships to each other and are funda- 
mentally interdependent. 

The institutions of society have arisen in response to man's 
needs. Early in racial history the divine fiat went forth to 
man "By the sweat of thy brow shalt thou earn bread." 
Nature was not at the service of man, unless man were will- 
ing to put forth the effort necessary to subdue her. Plants 
of special value were selected and cared for, animals were 
domesticated and herded. The earth's resources gradually 
were placed under the control of man, through man's activi- 
ties, intelligently directed. In response to a fundamental 
need of man, therefore, arose the industrial institution. As 
man developed, his wants and needs increased. He soon found 
that the resources of the earth are unequally distributed, and 
that materials of use to himself could be secured from his 
neighbors through barter. In the same community a subdi- 
vision of labor occurred. One person fished, another hunted, 
another made boats, etc. To facilitate trading operations a 



20 The Project Method m Education 

medium of exchange, as beaver, silver, and gold, was adopted. 
Transportation facilities were improved and the commercial 
operations of man became world-wide in scope. The estab- 
lishment of commerce may be regarded as a further expan- 
sion of the industrial institution. 

Man found himself instinctively interested in his own off- 
spring. In common with other animals, he was willing to 
risk his own life in protecting his child, or in supplying it 
with the needs of life. Proper food must be secured, shelter 
from the elements must be provided, and protection from 
other animals, including other human beings, was necessary. 
Because of the interest of man in his children, there was a 
grouping of human beings on the basis of relationships, and 
the family institution was established. 

In the struggle of man for a comfortable existence, he was 
not always careful of the welfare of others. He had a strong 
instinctive tendency to help others of his kind, but only rarely 
acted positively unless this assistance could be given without 
depriving himself of some benefit, or without affecting his 
increase in comforts. In numerous instances he even went 
so far as to rob another of the results of honest toil, or he 
even inflicted personal injury upon a fellowman. With in- 
crease in population it became more and more difficult for 
man to "live unto himself alone." Protection of life and 
property was found to be fundamental if life were to be en- 
joyed with greatest abundance. The political institution was 
created, therefore, to assist men to live together with a 
minimum of friction. 

Man cannot "live by bread alone." While engaged in im- 
proving his methods in the utilization of the resources of the 
earth for satisfying his physical needs, he also was inter- 
ested in ministering to his spiritual requirements. He could 
only in part master nature, he must also adjust himself to 



The Nature of the Project Method 81 

her laws. The welcome rains nourished his crops; the dry, 
hot wind withered the plants. His flocks and herds increased 
and flourished, until a drought or some mysterious disease or 
the attacks of wild animals reduced him to poverty. He did 
not understand the reasons for these things, in many in- 
stances, but was affected by the results. It was natural that 
he should think of evil spirits directing movements that were 
harmful to him, and of good spirits directing movements that 
were beneficial. It behooved him to show his appreciation of 
the good spirits, and to seek to placate the evil spirits. With 
the evolution of man further refinements in religious attitudes 
were effected. 

The knowledge which man could acquire through actual 
experience with his environment was limited. Unless the 
knowledge gained through his contact with nature could 
have been transmitted to posterity, racial progress would 
have been impossible. These experiences could not be trans- 
mitted physically. It was necessary to record the knowl- 
edge in some available form. The present social groups, 
interpreting these records, can profit from the experiences of 
others who are outside of the immediate environment, either 
in place or time. Economy in the acquisition of the social 
inheritance required an organization for its transmission. 
In response to this need, the educational institution gradually 
was evolved. 

Man rejoiced in his ability to do and in his accomplish- 
ments. His very being was swayed by the emotions and 
imageries that were aroused. His pent up energies, as repre- 
sented in his thoughts, feelings, and aspirations, could not 
be contained. He found pleasure in cherishing and in indi- 
cating his ideals through self-expression. These expressions 
took various forms, — literature, music, and art. 

The child's activities are severely limited by the mstitu- 



22 The Project Method m Education 

tional life into which he is bom. The various institutions of 
man, whether economic, spiritual, social, intellectual, or aes- 
thetic, have been evolved and developed in response to man's 
needs. They are an outcome of the relationships of man. 
These institutions are fundamental, although the details 
change so as to reflect the varying viewpoints of successive 
generations. The child is born into these institutions and, to 
a certain extent, must conform to them. The proper devel- 
opment of the child demands that he shall understand the 
nature and purpose of these institutions, but that he also 
shall have initiative aroused by means of which he can aid 
intelligently in altering them so as to meet present and 
anticipative requirements. 

(b) The personal world of the child is the apperceptive 
basis for further growth. The child's earliest experiences 
deal largely with home life, and before he enters school his 
horizon materially has been extended. He knows the differ- 
ent pieces of furniture and their uses, the various articles of 
clothing, various foods, and some values of heat and light. 
He has sat upon his mother's knee during the story hour, and 
has entered into the social life of the home in other ways. 
The older members of the family probably go to church and 
the child may go to Sunday School. The child may know at 
least one simple prayer and some member of the family may 
say grace at the table. He may tell his father and older 
brothers and sisters good-bye when they go to work, and 
he may greet them on their return. He knows that many 
things which he wants and many things that are secured for 
the family life must be bought, and that their purchase is 
associated with the income of the family. He has noticed 
roads being repaired or cleaned, streets being lighted, a fire 
department "making a run," and a policeman helping people 
across a busy street. He listens eagerly to stories and com- 



The Nature of the Project Method 23 

poses them, sings his own songs or songs that he has been 
taught, makes rag dolls, paper furniture, and mud pies. The 
phantasies of his imagination have been given full play. He 
has seen the older boys and girls going to school, and has 
talked about the time when he also will be old enough to go 
to school. At the time of entering school, therefore, the 
child has become acquainted with all of the fundamental 
institutions of society. Since he has made their acquaintance 
largely with respect to their relationships to his own life, 
he tends to interpret them in terms of their significance or 
use to himself. 

This broad foundation, not nearly so restricted as many 
teachers are inclined to believe, is the apperceptive basis for 
school work. It is because of this great variety of apper- 
ceptive tentacles that a pupil often can grow, not necessarily 
because of, but frequently in spite of, the teacher. The per- 
sonal world of the child is much more comprehensive in the 
upper than in the lower grades. The difference in ability is 
so marked that there has been a tendency to regard children 
as passing through periods of development, the periods be- 
ing rather sharply defined. This may be illustrated by the 
fallacy, not yet extinct, that the child for some years is a 
memorizing creature, and on passing into the next period, 
becomes a reasoning creature. Recent researches indicate 
that the child is in possession of practically all of his mental 
abilities at a very early age, and that their development in 
part is conditioned by the natural growth of the child, and 
in part by the intelligence with which pertinent materials are 
furnished him. The child normally does not actually develop 
by plateaus, but by a constant although irregular climb. 
The child's world is constantly dynamic. It is impracticable, 
therefore, accurately to gauge the child's world without 
knowing the particular antecedent conditions that have 



24 The Project Method in Education 

influenced the child's development. Many of the ex- 
periences of the children, however, outside of the school, 
present elements of identity or similarity, and, fortunately, 
the general order of presentation of school material does not 
differ fundamentally in our various school systems. It is 
possible, therefore, for the teacher wisely to assume that the 
children of a particular grade have had certain fundamental 
experiences, and if she acquaints herself with the special en- 
vironments of the children, she may, with comparative cer- 
tainty, utilize their past experiences as a means of further 
growth. 

(c) The teacher primarily is concerned with the steps 
by means of which the pupil moves from his personal world 
■farther into the larger world. The teacher may select the 
material that she considers pertinent for the child, but she 
cannot think nor act for him. If the child is to master the 
material, he must make and interpret his own selection. The 
placing of appropriate material within his reach, however, 
will enable him to establish the relationships in an economical 
manner. The teacher has the child's projects in mind, while 
the pupil is interested in the problem or new situation pre- 
sented. It is possible for the teacher to anticipate the needs 
of the child and systematically to provide for his growth. 

After the material has been selected by the pupil, possibly 
with the help of the teacher, the next step involves its inter- 
pretation. Certain relationships and interpretations are es- 
tablished at the time the material is selected, but a more 
thorough-going study generally is necessary. The situation 
must be analyzed. The elements of the situation must be 
related to the child's world, and to each other. 

The situation may be of such a nature as to demand a 
physical response on the part of the child. In manual train- 
ing the problem may involve the construction of a table, a 



The Nature of the Project Method 25 

chair, a hat rack, or a swing, or the expression work may 
involve the construction of a map, the drawing of a picture, 
or the molding of clay into a statue. The situation may in- 
volve a field trip to some feature of nature, or to some fac- 
tory. When the statement "there can be no impression with- 
out a corresponding expression" was first accepted as an 
educational axiom, many enthusiasts immediately jumped to 
the conclusion that this expression must involve a manual 
muscular response in relation to materials of the environ- 
ment. Careful studies have since established the fact that 
the mind may react to the situation, furnishing the corre- 
sponding expression, without the accompanying muscular 
manual effort. The situation, therefore, may be of such a 
nature as to involve primarily an intellectual response. 

A person frequently does a thing because he feels that he 
ought to act. A man may shout "Amen" while the preacher 
is talking. A friend may be crying and we rush to her to 
find out what is the matter and to extend our sympathy. 
A blind man holds out his cup and almost before we know 
it our penny is lying within it. There may be a big cele- 
bration, as was true when the recent premature peace agree- 
ment with Germany was announced, and regardless of reason, 
and even though there is danger of contracting influenza, we 
get on the street car and go down town to enter enthusias- 
tically and perhaps foolishly into the activities. 

The situation may be of such a nature as to call forth 
primarily a physical, intellectual, or emotional response, 
and each type educationally is of fundamental importance. 
In developing the child, it should be noted, that with respect 
to a particular situation, the material and not the child is 
the variable factor. The child is not to be adapted to the 
material, but the material is to be adapted to the child. 
Even this is not enough. After the teacher has decided what 



26 The Project Method in Education 

material the child can master, the next problem is an appro- 
priate selection from this superabundant material. Hav- 
ing made this decision, the teacher next should consider how 
to make the child feel that this selection is the best for him. 
If the child is keenly interested in the situation and wants to 
interpret it, progress may be made very rapidly. 

(d) The child's world, enlarged through the project 
method, is also changed either for better or for worse. As 
a result of the child's study, the situation becomes meaning- 
ful. His world not only has become larger, but probably has 
been modified. He has stronger, more numerous, and prob- 
ably more dependable apperceptive tentacles, by means of 
which he can meet other situations. When a child has inter- 
preted many situations and has made them his own, he is 
spoken of as a bright child, and if he quickly interprets cor- 
rectly situation after situation, it is said that he learns 
rapidly. . 

Each impression permanently changes the individual in 
some respects. The pupil of yesterday is not the counterpart 
of the pupil of to-day, and the pupil of to-day is not the 
same as the pupil of to-morrow. When we associate with a 
person day after day, since the individual as a whole gen- 
erally changes very slowly, we scarcely recognize the fact 
that a change is in progress. When we have been away from 
a person for a long time and return, frequently we think 
that he has changed remarkably, in some cases for the better, 
in other cases for the worse. A few years ago a young man 
met a girl and spent several hours in her company. He went 
on to a leading normal school, but as he studied his thoughts 
reverted again and again to this girl, and he almost wor- 
shipped her as his ideal. As he developed rapidly in the 
normal school his outlook on life constantly was changing 
and enlarging. As his ideals changed, he unconsciously read 



The Nature of the Project Method 27 

them into this absent girl. At last, about a year after his 
admission to the school, the girl made arrangements to visit 
him. She stayed several days. When she had returned home 
the boy seemed much depressed. In a few weeks he visited 
her, but when he returned, he was almost heartbroken. The 
girl, who measured up to his ideals twelve months before, no 
longer met the requirements. A teacher, whose duty it is to 
enlarge and alter a child's world, accepts a great responsi- 
bility, but has a wonderful opportunity. It is not sufficient 
that the child's world shall change, but the change should 
be for the better. 

The full significance of the project method should be 
grasped by every teacher. The instinctive method common 
to all animals is largely beyond the purpose for which the 
school exists except insofar as this method illuminates or is 
used as a basis for, or an essential part of, the project 
method. Nature has provided a method of growth for all 
animals, but she has provided a special method of growth, 
through the development of intelligence, for man, by means 
of which he is differentiated from other animals. Out of 
school or in school the project method determines the way 
of growth, but the teacher has it within her province to in- 
fluence materially the direction and rapidity of development. 
Her task primarily is the establishment of proper relations 
between the child and the successive situations. The concep- 
tion of a project, as suggested in this chapter, should help 
a teacher to perform her work more intelligently, should help 
her to appreciate the dignity of her calling, and should add 
to her pleasure of living because of her appreciation of her 
relations to society. 



28 The Project Method m Education 

Problems 

1. Indicate as many concepts as possible which the word 

project, on the basis of derivation, definition, or use, 

may represent in educational nomenclature. Which 

concept, everything considered, preferably should be 

associated with the word? 

£. What is the significance of the instinctive method of 
growth in the development of man? What is the rela- 
tion of this method to the project method? How does 
the education of man differ from the education of other 
animals ? 

3. Indicate by concrete illustrations (a) how the project 
method may be abused; (b) how the project method 
properly may be used. 

4. Give an illustration of the use of the project method 
which brought (a) bad results; (b) good results; (c) 
no immediately discernible results. 

5. Is the child a slave to the institutions into which he 
is born? 

6. Name some experience that an individual may have 
and indicate the ways in which it may affect his per- 
sonal world. 

7. Is it literally true that in all cases the teacher should 
adapt the material to the child, or are there conditions 
which might arise that would make the reverse adapta- 
tion desirable? 



CHAPTER II 

THE EVOLUTION OF THE PROJECT AS AN EDUCATIONAL 
CONCEPT 

The word project represented somewhat varying con- 
cepts as long as it was part of the general rather than spe- 
cific vocabulary of the educational field. When a word with 
a general use is included in a specific discussion of some 
educational topic, it is to be expected that the author or 
speaker will exercise the same freedom in the use of the word 
that is permitted to all users of good language. Since many 
words of a general vocabulary have varying meanings, edu- 
cational writers will use a word to indicate somewhat dif- 
ferent ideas, the particular meaning being evident through 
the context. According to circumstances one writer will tend 
to stress one concept related to the word and another writer 
will tend to stress some other concept. The various uses 
of the word will be held in mind, but the writer gradually will 
find himself prejudiced in favor of some particular concept. 
During the period, therefore, that the word is mentioned in 
a general way in educational literature, there is a tendency 
for each leader to limit its use to a specific concept, and to 
the extent that the use of the word varies, the possibility of 
one writer misunderstanding another is ever present. 

With the inclusion of the word project in the terminology 
of pedagogy, the varying specific concepts, independently 
adopted by different leaders, have persisted. If a word, se- 
cured from the general vocabulary, meets a specific need in 

29 



30 The Project Method in Education 

representing an idea that is vital to some part of organized 
subject matter, in addition to its general varying use, it may 
come to have a scientific, restricted application. If a word 
becomes a part of pedagogical terminology, however, it 
should have an exact and a practically unvarying meaning. 
When a leader begins to limit the use of a word to the expres- 
sion of a definite concept, he is beginning to recognize the 
word as a scientific term. Each leader naturally will be 
prejudiced in favor of the use of the word as he has limited 
it. Since, as we have seen, the specific applications vary, it 
is to be expected that more or less controversy will arise as 
to the exact meaning that generally should be adopted by the 
teaching profession. It will not be surprising to find that 
our leaders are not agreed upon this point, but a study of 
the trend, it is believed, will indicate that there has been a 
movement irresistibly in the direction indicated in the pre- 
ceding chapter. 

A recognition of a project as an educational term is lim- 
ited to the present century. In the early part of the present 
century, as related by Professor David Snedden, "some of 
us began using the word 'project' to describe a unit of edu- 
cative work in which the most prominent feature was some 
form of positive and concrete achievement. The baking of 
a loaf of bread, the making of a shirtwaist, the raising of a 
bushel of corn, the making of a table, the installation of an 
electric bell outfit — all these, when undertaken by learners, 
and when so handled as to result in a large acquisition of 
knowledge and experiences, were called projects. . . . The 
primary characteristics of projects as thus conceived were: 
(a) The undertaking always possessed a certain unity; (b) 
the learner himself clearly conceived the practical end or 
outcome to be attained, and it was full of interest to him, 
luring him on, as to a definite goal to be won; (c) the stand- 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 81 

ards of achievement were clearly objective — so much so that 
the learner and his fellows could, in large part, render valu- 
able decisions as to the worth — in an amateur or in a com- 
mercial sense — of the product; and (d) the undertaking was 
of such a nature that the learner, in achieving his desired 
ends, would necessarily have to apply much of his previous 
knowledge and experience — perhaps heretofore not con- 
sciously held as usable in this way . . . and probably would 
have to acquire some knowledge and skills. . . . 

"In a sense any concrete job undertaken in a vocational 
school where the realization of valuable results in product 
constitutes an important end, might be called a 'project'; 
but to be an 'educational project' such a job (e. g. turning 
a spindle, wiring a room, growing a half acre of potatoes, 
taking commercial charge of three cows for a year, cooking 
family breakfasts for a month, making ten saleable shirt- 
waists, cooperatively building and selling a cottage, etc.) 
must be of such a nature as to offer large opportunity, not 
only for the acquisition of new skill and experience in prac- 
tical manipulation, but also for application of old, and learn- 
ing of new, 'related knowledge' — art, science, mathematics, 
administration, hygiene, social science, etc. . . . We might 
want our pupils to obtain some information as to comets ; 
can we devise what can legitimately be called a project for 
this purpose? Of course we can call an enterprise destined 
to give the pupil more knowledge of comets (using books, pic- 
tures, and perhaps, if circumstances favor, some naked-eye 
observations and a peek through a telescope) a project in 
learning; but this simply stretches our useful term to un- 
manageable and unserviceable dimensions. I do not forget 
that Webster defines project as: 'that which is projected, or 
designed ; something intended or devised ; a scheme, design, or 
plan.' 



32 The Project Method in Education 

"Nevertheless I had hoped that we could give to the edu- 
cational project a limited and definite meaning which would 
make it the designation of a useful type of teaching (or 
learning) unit, distinct from the lesson, the exercise, the 
topic, the experiment, the reading assignment, the inquiry, 
the investigation, etc. . . ." (Snedden, David, The Project 
as a Teaching Unit, School and Society, IV, 419-23.) 

From the above extracts, it will be seen that Prof. Sned- 
den placed the emphasis upon a unit of activity resulting in 
purposeful, concrete achievement, the aim being realized 
through a utilization of the acquired skills and experiences 
of the child, and related skills and experiences which he 
necessarily acquired in working out the project. Since the 
project resulted in objective accomplishment, the child could 
evaluate his own work. In acknowledging that a lesson on 
comets might be called a project in learning, but that the 
term would become too all-inclusive, Prof. Snedden shows his 
desire for a limited specific use of the word, which is not in 
accord with the use ordinarily given it. It is not clear as to 
just how the use of the project in this limited sense is to be 
differentiated from the lesson, the exercise, the topic, the 
experiment, the reading assignment, the inquiry, the investi- 
gation, etc." The outstanding feature was the attempt to 
secure recognition for the project lesson as a lesson type of 
correlative value with the numerous types of lessons already 
recognized. 

An attempt to distinguish between a "project exercise" 
and a "problem exercise" has been made. "Both project 
and problem exercise," according to J. A. Randall, "are 
special varieties of question and problem. A question calls 
for a statement of knowledge on the part of the person ques- 
tioned and of necessity only for a repetition of fact. A 
problem is a question demanding the organization of knowl- 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 33 

edge and the exercise of judgment before the answer is given. 
The school project is now being confused with the generic 
word 'problem' and the term 'problem exercise.' A school 
project is a problem the solution of which results in the 
production of some object or knowledge of such value to the 
worker as to make the labor involved seem to him worth 
while." (Randall, J. A., National Educational Association, 
1915, 1009-12.) Mr. Randall regards the school project as 
a special type of problem. According to his viewpoint the 
emphasis is placed, not necessarily upon wholehearted activ- 
ity in the solving of the problem or in the meeting of the 
situation, but upon satisfaction with the results which in 
turn makes one satisfied with the effort put forth, even 
though at the time the effort may have been disagreeable. 
It is possible for a pupil reluctantly to solve a problem, but 
on its being solved to be very happy in the achievement. The 
scope of the project is broadened by the admission that the 
school project need not necessarily result in "concrete 
achievement," but may result either in the production of 
some object or of some knowledge. 

A distinction between an agricultural project and an agri- 
cultural exercise has been made. In discussing an agricul- 
tural project, S. H. Dennis has written: "It might be wise 
here again to call attention to the distinction between an 
agricultural project and an agricultural exercise, as these 
terms have been somewhat confused in some sections of the 
country. The agricultural exercise is a simple experiment, 
or demonstration, or illustration, and is usually of short 
duration. It is not organized in the same manner as an agri- 
cultural project. It is not so comprehensive, as it usually 
deals with one principle or operation which can be completed 
in a short time. 

"The agricultural project on the other hand is very defi- 



34 The Project Method m Education 

nitely studied out and planned on a systematic basis. It in- 
volves much preliminary study and organization of agricul- 
tural matter bearing upon the work to be undertaken. It in- 
volves not only the learning of a scientific principle related 
to some farm practice, but the application of such principle 
or principles to farm practices. It usually extends through 
a period of time. 

"An agricultural project, to be of value, must be of eco- 
nomic importance. It must involve the improving of some 
conditions or the production of some crop, etc. It must be 
carried out on such a basis that the success of the project 
means financial gain, and failure of the project a correspond- 
ing loss. In other words, a project is a business enterprise 
carried out on the farm or in the garden. 

"The boy must be made to realize that he has an invest- 
ment which, if possible, must be made to yield a satisfactory 
return or income. The scientific principle involved, and 
their relation to accepted principles, will be properly em- 
phasized under such conditions." (Dennis, £L H., Home 
Project in Secondary School Agriculture, National Educa- 
tional Association, 1916, 6QQ-6.) 

The emphasis is placed upon a complex situation, requir- 
ing a period of time for its solution. If the school work 
were thought to be arranged on a scale, the lower part con- 
sisting of simple questions and answers, and the upper part 
of very complex situations, one part of the scale gradually 
shading into the other, the lower part of the scale would in- 
clude agricultural exercises and the upper part of the scale, 
agricultural projects. Projects are not regarded as neces- 
sarily being economically valuable, but if any educational 
value is to be secured from them, the economic consideration 
is considered fundamental. The project must involve a busi- 
ness enterprise, the success or failure of which can be gauged 
definitely by profits and losses. 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 35 

The consolidation of district schools has emphasized the 
value of certain kinds of project work. At Little Compton 
Commons in Rhode Island a number of district schools were 
consolidated, as a result of which more effective teaching was 
possible. The environment of the child was used extensively, 
(a) The child was led to observe his physical environment, 
including plant and animal life, topographic forms, and 
physical processes, (b) Through the interest aroused in the 
environment, the child desired to join boys' and girls' clubs, 
cooperatively to consider topics, and to compete in a friendly 
manner, (c) In the upper grades project work was empha- 
sized, this type of work meaning "that a pupil does a piece 
of work, whatever it may be — raising corn or cattle, canning 
fruit or making bread^-at home, like a real grown-up. Clubs 
and project work are a new development of the older form of 
school gardens. The difference and improvement lie in the 
doing of the work at home. A garden or a loaf of bread made 
at the school is applied science, but done at home, it is liv- 
ing. The children compete for results just as their parents 
do with their friends ; they figure costs and profits in the 
same way, and they contribute their share of wealth and 
comfort to the family." (Higgins, Henry. Carrying the 
School into the Home. House Beautiful, 41, 310-12, April, 
1917.) 

According to this conception of project work, there are 
three successive steps involved in the educational endeavor: 
(a) the child becomes acquainted with his environment and 
has the individualistic point of view; (b) the child becomes 
interested in community affairs and is stimulated, through 
association with others, to compete in an attempt to excel 
in his activities; and (c) the child, after having secured the 
social viewpoint, has an adequate foundation for engaging 
in agricultural activities in the same way and for the same 
purpose as the adult farmer. This latter type of work is 



36 The Project Method in Education 

called project work. The distinction, educatively, is rela- 
tive rather than absolute. 

Massachusetts successfully has worked out the home proj- 
ect plan of vocational agricultural education. In Massachu- 
setts considerable emphasis has been placed upon home proj- 
ects in connection with the teaching of agriculture. In 1912, 
twenty-five boys, representing five different types of farm- 
ing, earned from their farm work, that was carried on in 
connection with their school work, $5,102.30. The view- 
point of Massachusetts in emphasizing farm project work is 
as follows : "Neither skill nor business ability can be learned 
from books alone, nor merely from observation of the work 
and management of others. Both require active participa- 
tion during the learning period in productive farming oper- 
ations of real economic or commercial importance. The mas- 
terful constructive imagination may accomplish much for 
him who possesses it, and for his needs, books and observation 
may finally result in vocational efficiency. The difficulty is 
that such powerful imagination is so rare as to constitute 
him who has it a genius, far removed from the common run of 
boys 14 to 18 or 20 years of age who live on farms. 

"To see a thing done, however good the demonstration, is 
not to do it oneself. To participate in the carrying out of 
an enterprise planned and ordered by another — by even an 
agricultural school instructor — may leave one little better 
than a gang laborer. 

"Farming activities readily resolve themselves into what 
may be termed farming projects. A farming project is a 
thing to be done on a farm. The thing done may contribute 
some element of improvement about the farm — as construct- 
ing a concrete walk leading to the front door ; planting and 
nurturing shade trees ; making and maintaining an attractive 
lawn. The thing done may be of an experimental nature — 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 37 

the planting of an untried variety of fruit, the feeding of an 
untried ration, the testing of one or another of much adver- 
tised roofing materials. Finally, the thing done may be of a 
productive nature, as the growing of a crop of clover or al- 
falfa ; the growing of a field of potatoes ; the growing of a 
crop of silage corn, or the production of eggs for the market. 
A farming project is, further, something to be done on a 
farm which involves a limited and definite amount of equip- 
ment, materials, and time, and which is directed toward the 
accomplishment of a specified and valuable result. 

"Finally, a farming project, as the term is here used, is a 
thing to be done on a farm which, in the preparation for do- 
ing it and in the carrying of it out to a successful result, 
involves a thoroughgoing educational process. The improve- 
ment project of constructing a concrete walk to the front 
door might involve a study of the nature of cement; its ac- 
tion on sand, gravel, and broken stone; its resistant quali- 
ties to the weather; the seasons in which it might be used; its 
costs as compared with other materials, such as boards, 
plank, tar, brick, flagging, and asphalt; the mathematical 
determination of proportions of sand, cement, and stone to 
be used ; the geometrical determination of the sections into 
which it should be divided and whether it should be crowned 
or flat ; the geographical sources of the raw material and the 
commercial conditions for purchasing the cement. The ex- 
perimental project of planting an untried variety of fruit 
might involve a study of the probable adaptability of the 
variety selected to the soil of the farm, the climate of the 
locality and the market demands within reach of the farm. 
The productive project of growing a crop of clover might 
involve a study of the various varieties of clover; the com- 
parative adaptability of those varieties to the given field on 
which the crop must be grown and to the climate of the 



38 The Project Method m Education 

locality; the most reliable places for the purchases of seed; 
the best time for seeding ; the best time for cutting ; the best 
methods of curing and storing; the mathematical calcula- 
tion as to the saving in cost of feeding stuffs which the crop 
would afford; the chemical elements it would furnish in the 
ration, and the beneficial chemical, biological, and mechani- 
cal effects on the soil in which would be grown." (Stimson, 
N. W., Massachusetts Home Project of Vocational Agri- 
cultural Education, United States Bureau of Education Bul- 
letin, 1914, No. 8, Whole No, 579.) Trained men visit the 
boys upon the farms and assist them to work out their proj- 
ects. The project is carried out on the farm, but work at 
school bearing on the project is assigned the boys. This type 
of work is called "project study." 

The organization of school material on the work level prof- 
itably may consist of projects. When a pupil engages in 
activities looking toward a vocational pursuit, or toward the 
proper shouldering of individual and social obligations, such 
responsible activities may be termed work, and while the 
child is engaged in this type of work he may be regarded as 
being on the "work level" of educational training. Prof. 
Franklin Bobbitt has suggested the significance of the proj- 
ect method on the work-level of experience as follows : "On 
the work-level, the task to be performed is central; and the 
science is organized about it. . . . There is a strong drift in 
public education toward this project-method of organization. 
The school corn clubs, for example, assemble all possible in- 
formation relative to the growth of corn and use it for the 
control of practical procedure. Children engaged in an 
anti-mosquito campaign assemble just the entomological, 
bacteriological, and other information needed in their labors, 
rejecting for the moment all irrelevant scientific information. 
The tree-protecting league gathers all possible facts concern- 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 39 

ing the species of trees attacked by insects, fungi, etc., to- 
gether with the scientific information needed for combating 
the destructive influences. They reject for the time all 
botanical or entomological information that has no bearing 
on the problem in hand. In weeding out the grammatical 
mistakes made by children in their speech, the grammatical 
information is assembled that relates to the specific mistakes 
found; all other grammatical facts are passed by as irrele- 
vant. 

"In brief, one learns the things needed for directing 
action in connection with the situations in which the action 
is to take place, and just previous to the dra wing-up of the 
plans. Only under such circumstances can knowledge prop- 
erly reveal its significance, be rightly focused upon human 
affairs, or be normally assimilated. Knowing and doing 
should grow up together. . . . 

"The technique of the project-method requires that in 
the teaching the major attention be given to what we have 
called the antecedent performance rather than to the ob- 
jective or culminating performance. It also requires that 
the antecedent activities be performed by the students. 

"In the use of this method the necessary ideas are to be 
got from at least three places. To make the matters clear 
let us resume our illustration of the gas-engine: 

"1. In the first place, the boy, motivated by intention to 
make the engine, will observe such engines in as great variety 
as available. . . . 

"2. In the second place, he will read descriptions, pictures, 
drawings, and diagrams of engines that he has not seen, by 
way of extending his vision of possibility. . . . 

"3. For illustrating the third step, let us isolate the single 
feature of the ignition system. Instead of further widening 
his understanding of the electrical science involved by look- 



40 The Project Method m Education 






ing to still more engines — there is a limit beyond which little 
or nothing new appears — he might look off and view the 
wide field of electricity in general and its applications in 
general. He is still motivated, let us say, by his project 
of developing an improved type of ignition system. . . . 

"But though taking a full survey of the 'pure' science, 
he is only sorting over the possibilities of the field, locating 
suggestions, trying to find the ideas that he can put to 
work. This pure-science overview is the ultimate level of 
project-science experience. 

"While in a sense this is 'pure' science, it is very different 
from the usual non-functional type. Here the primary 
thing in the student's consciousness is the project, the piece 
of work to be done; not the satisfaction of intellectual 
interests. He examines every fact and principle in relation 
to his practical problem, and not merely as a field of 
intellectual sight-seeing." (Bobbitt, Franklin. The Curric- 
ulum, 30-33.) 

On the work level, Prof. Bobbitt favors the organization 
of school activities about tasks. The task should be so 
related to the child's point of view that the value of per- 
forming it will be seen. If the situation involves "doing," 
a proper execution of the task will involve "knowing." From 
the educative standpoint, while the pupil should be moti- 
vated by a strong, persistent purpose, the actual growth is 
dependent upon the activities in relation to "doing" and 
"knowing" by means of which the purpose is realized. In 
realizing his purpose, the pupil may study actual similar 
accomplishments of others, and indirectly, through repre- 
sentative materials, further may increase his knowledge. The 
"pure science" field itself may be surveyed for suggestions, 
bearing upon the problem. The center of emphasis, therefore, 
is shifted from pure science, which draws upon applied sci- 
ence for illustrations, to applied science, which draws from 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 41 

pure science for assistance. Pure science thus becomes the 
ultimate and not the immediate goal. 

The project has been considered a complex unit of work 
taking place in its natural setting. In a recent paper, 
Professor W. W. Charters adopted the following viewpoint : 
"In this paper the project is considered to be an act carried 
to completion in its natural setting and involving the solu- 
tion of a relatively complex problem. 

"Four terms of the definition should receive a few words 
of explanation. 

"First, the project is a problem. This differentiates it 
from reflex and habitual acts. 

"Second, the project is a relatively complex problem. . . . 
It is thus possible for a portion of subject matter which 
appears as a complex problem to the teacher to be a series 
of isolated small problems to the students. But the term 
project applies to the complex rather than the simple prob- 
lem, although we are able to divide a large project into a 
number of subordinate ones. 

"Third, the project contemplates the solution of a com- 
plex problem as one step toward carrying over of the fruits 
of the solution into some form of action. 

"Fourth, in order that the multiproblem which is carried 
over into action may become a project it is necessary that 
the action be completed in its natural setting. 

"The project seems to be an attempt to return to the 
concrete conditions of home education from the abstract 
isolation of the school. It presupposes natural activities 
flowing in spontaneous currents. Problems arise; they are 
analyzed and solved and are made to perform their intrinsic 
functions in actual situations." (Charters, W. W. The 
Project in Home Economics Teaching, Journal of Home 
Economics, X, 114-19, March, '18.) 

Prof. Charters regards the project as a special type of 



42 The Project Method m Education 

problem, a complex problem. The project, as a complex 
problem to the teacher, may be a series of smaller problems 
as experienced by the pupils. These simpler problems of 
the child are not regarded as projects, although it is 
admitted that a large project can be resolved into* a number 
of smaller ones. The article is not clear as to how the 
author differentiates between the "isolated small problems" 
and the "subordinate" projects. The activities are to be 
carried on in a natural setting. The end to be realized is 
found not in concrete, objective accomplishment, but in the 
use to which the thing accomplished may be put. The fruits 
of one project, consequently, may be used in the mastery of 
some succeeding project. 

The project has been considered whole-hearted, purpose- 
ful activity proceeding in a social environment. Prof. Wil- 
liam H. Kilpatrick in discussing the project method presents 
the following viewpoint: "In attacking with successive 
classes in educational theory the problem of method, I had 
felt increasingly the need of unifying more completely a 
number of important related aspects of the educative proc- 
ess. I began to hope for some one concept which might 
serve this end. Such a concept, if found, must, so I thought, 
emphasize the factor of action, preferably whole-hearted, 
vigorous activity. It must at the same time provide a place 
for the adequate utilization of the laws of learning, and no 
less for the essential elements of the ethical quality of 
conduct. The last named looks of course to the social 
situation as well as to the individual attitude. Along with 
these should go, as it seemed, the important generalization 
that education is life — so easy to say and so hard to 
delimit. . . . There came increasingly a belief — corrobo- 
rated on many sides — that the unifying idea I sought was 
to be found in the conception of whole-hearted, purposeful 



Evolution of the Project as cm Educational Concept 43 

activity proceeding in a social environment, or, more briefly, 
in the unit element of such activity, the hearty, purposeful 
act. 

"It is to this purposeful act with the emphasis on the word 
purpose that I myself apply the term 'project.' I did not 
invent the term nor did I start it on its educational career. 
Indeed, I do not know how long it has already been in use. 
I did, however, consciously appropriate the word to desig- 
nate the typical unit of the worthy life described above. 
Others who were using the term seemed to me either to use 
it in a mechanical and partial sense or to be intending in a 
general way what I tried to define more exactly. . . . 

". . . Suppose a girl makes a dress. If she did in hearty 
fashion purpose to make the dress, if she planned it, if she 
made it herself, then I should say the instance is that of a 
typical project. We have a whole-hearted, purposeful act 
carried on amid social surroundings. That the dressmaking 
was purposeful is clear ; the purpose once formed dominated 
each succeeding step in the process and gave unity to the 
whole. That the girl was whole-hearted in the work was 
assured in the illustration. That the activity proceeded in 
a social environment is clear ; other girls at least are to 
see the dress. . . . This is not to rule out group projects; 
a class presents a play, a group of boys organize a baseball 
nine, three pupils prepare to read a story to their comrades. 
It is clear then that projects may present every variety that 
purposes present in life. It is also clear that a mere de- 
scription of outwardly observable facts might not disclose 
the essential factor, namely, the presence of a dominating 
purpose. It is equally true that there can be every degree 
of approximation to full projects according to the animat- 
ing purpose varies in clearness and strength. If we con- 
ceive activities as ranging on a scale from those performed 



44 The Project Method m Education 

under dire compulsion up to those into which one puts his 
* whole heart,' the argument herein made restricts the term 
'project' or purposeful activity to the upper portion of the 
scale. As to the social environment element, some may feel 
that, however important this is to the fullest educative 
experience, it is still not essential to the conception of the 
purposeful act as here represented. These might wish to 
leave this element out of the defining discussion. To this 
I should not object if it were clearly understood that the 
resulting concept, generally speaking, demands the social 
situation both for its practical working and for the com- 
parative valuation of proffered projects." (Kilpatrick, 
William H. The Project Method, Teachers College Record, 
Vol. XIX, 319-335, Sept., 1918.) 

The conception of Prof. Kilpatrick, in some respects, is 
a radical departure from the commonly held viewpoint. The 
emphasis is not placed upon concrete, objective achievement, 
or upon a complex problem as such, but upon a unit of work, 
involving whole-hearted, purposeful activity. Small prob- 
lems, as well as large, may be projects. There may be all 
degrees of activity from an activity carried on under dire 
compulsion to an activity that is absolutely whole-hearted 
and purposeful. The use of the term project would be 
confined to the upper part of the scale. Unfortunately there 
has been devised no way of determining on this scale where 
a compulsory act leaves off and a project act begins. With 
respect to the same unit of work, as well, certain parts may 
be effected whole-heartedly and purposely, while other parts 
may be effected under some sort of driving, dire compulsion. 
Not only is there difficulty, therefore, in determining whether 
a unit of activity is a project or not, but the same unit of 
activity, according to the variability of whole-hearted, pur- 
poseful activity that enters in, jnay be alternately a project 






Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 45 

and a mere activity. The question arises as to whether 
absolute, continued whole-heartedness is necessary in a 
project. That it is desirable is not open to question. If 
the pupil is working on a project, however, the technique 
of teaching involves the making of the project as whole- 
hearted and as purposeful as possible. The degree of per- 
fect whole-heartedness with which the work is carried on 
influences efficiency, but possibly this is to be regarded as 
a means of promoting the child's economical relations to the 
project rather than as an essential or a fundamental aspect 
of the project itself. 

The project has been regarded as growth based upon the 
meeting of difficulties. Prof. John F. Woodhull, in a recent 
address, advanced the following viewpoint: "In using the 
project method, one does not begin with a topic or a caption 
as in the case of a proposition in geometry. The project is 
in its nature less formal, less conscious of what conclusion 
is to be reached. It can not, if genuine, proceed according 
to a plan of organization imposed by another. It works 
toward conclusions which may be far distant. It is merely 
the method of research adapted to the age and capacity 
of the individual. It works toward definitions and funda- 
mental principles rather than from them. In short, it 
reverses the prevailing order of school procedure and follows 
the natural method of scientific workers. . . . 

"The great masters of science, Galileo, Faraday, Pasteur, 
Darwin, etc., illustrated in all their lives and work the 
project method. The intelligent man illustrates it in all his 
work outside of the fields of education. High-school pupils 
use the project method in all their self-directed work outside 
of school. But when the school-master undertakes to direct 
the pursuit of knowledge, he formalizes, he systematizes, he 
schematizes, and invariably inverts the natural order of 



46 The Project Method m Education 

learning. The result is that our young people are getting 
their real science through various outside agencies. . . . 

"About the time of our Revolutionary War there lived in 
the parish of Selborne, England, an excellent exponent of the 
project method. His name was Gilbert White. He roamed 
the fields and woods to see what he should see and made 
notes of his observations upon a great variety of sub- 
jects. . . . 

"If it is true, as I believe it is, that the project must 
always arise in some 'cross road situation,' some doubt as 
to the next step, some question, vital and impelling because 
of its personal interest, then air is not a project. No intelli- 
gent person inquires about air. And no free person would 
submit to the protracted instruction which we require the 
young people to endure upon that topic. Nor may we 
camouflage the situation by calling this sort of thing general 
science, or project study, as some misguided persons do. If, 
however, a pupil says, as one did to me, 'I can understand 
the use of a propeller to a ship in water but how a pro- 
peller may be useful to an air-ship is a mystery that I would 
like to have explained,' we have a challenge to enter the topic 
of the air by way of a project. 

"It is not necessary that project study by high-school 
and college students should always involve experimental 
work. To read a description of project study by a master 
scientist is often more profitable. 

"According to Pasteur, a project has more to do with 
the general and everyday happenings of nature than it has 
with academic specialization. . . . The only way to appre- 
ciate the project method in the pursuit of science is to study 
its exemplification in the lives of its masters." (Woodhull, 
John F. The Project Method in the Teaching of Science. 
School and Society, VIII, 41-44, July 13, 1918.) 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 47 

According to Prof. Woodhull, the project is the normal 
method of growth by means of which related material is 
interpreted and then classified into life's experiences. Sup- 
plied with appropriate materials, the child uses them for his 
own development, and effects his own organization. The 
child, confronted with situations having certain values, de- 
sires to interpret them. This conception seems to include 
all intellectualized effort, which is put forth because of the 
student's voluntary, purposeful attitude toward the situation. 

The attempt to restrict the use of the word to a special 
type of lesson has proved futile. In the foregoing discus- 
sions it has been noted that attempts have been made nar- 
rowly to limit the use of the word project. In the limiting, 
however, the boundaries have not been even approximately 
determined, so that it constantly has overflowed the boun- 
dary lines to represent a more comprehensive concept. When 
the attempt has been made to recognize the project as a 
special lesson type, all other types have not been justified 
except insofar as they contributed in some important fash- 
ion to life's projects. The various other types consequently 
are seen to be inseparably and inextricably integrated with 
the so-called project, which accounts for the inability satis- 
factorily to use the term project in a restricted sense. This 
integration and constant expansion of the term to cover the 
various lesson types suggests the need of using the term as 
a concept that includes all intellectual growth, and there- 
fore all types of lessons. In fact, the various lesson types, 
if properly presented, are ways of getting at that type of 
development that differentiates the human being from other 
animals, and the one method of growth, whether considered 
generically, historically, or on the basis of present edu- 
cational usage, properly may be termed the project method. 

There is a tendency to confuse tlie project method with 



48 The Project Method m Education 

its economical utilization. In the preceding chapter, ways 
of facilitating the use of the project method have been sug- 
gested. It does not seem essential that whole-hearted, pur- 
poseful activity or unusual interest should enter into method 
as a component factor, for whole-heartedness is a relative 
matter. Under the influence of numerous factors, whole* 
heartedness may decrease to a minimum. Even while one 
is engaged in a given unit of activity, particularly if sus- 
tained effort is involved, whole-heartedness may disappear 
long before the unit of activity has been completed, but 
external influences may induce the man half-heartedly to 
complete the work. The moment that a man ceases to throw 
his very soul into the work, it is scarcely correct to state 
that the project abruptly has ceased to be a project, al- 
though of course the completion of the project may be 
affected by the changing attitude of the worker. The sig- 
nificant factor is a recognition of the method of growth 
indicated by nature for mankind, and the responsibility of the 
teacher is to seek to relate the child to his environment and 
related materials in such a way that he will work with a will, 
with an enthusiasm, and with a well-defined purpose. The 
more effectively the child is brought into touch with the 
situation, the more economically will he develop under the 
influence of the project method. When a child is placed in 
an environment that maximally is suitable for his continued 
development, the project method very economically is being 
used. If an attempt is made to force an artificial, adult 
organization upon the child, insofar as there is development, 
it is through the project method, but the project method is 
so incapably utilized that actual real development is at a 
minimum. The technique of teaching primarily is concerned 
with the functioning of the project method as efficiently as 
possible. The pupil may regard the purpose whole-heart- 



Evolution of the Project as an Educational Concept 49 

edly, or he may regard the steps necessary for the realization 
of the purpose whole-heartedly. The skill of the teacher is 
tested as she attempts to get the pupils interested whole- 
heartedly both in the goal and in the steps necessary to 
reach the goal. 

Problems 

1. In selecting an educational terminology, is it prefer- 
able to adopt words that are in common use, or to 
coin words to express a definite concept? 

2. Is there a meaning, based on derivation, definition, or 
general use, of the word project that may be adopted 
in education, for which there is at present no satis- 
factory word? 

3. What is the explanation of the recent interest that 
has been aroused in projects? 

4. Is there a real difference between an agricultural 
project and an agricultural exercise? 

5. What are the relative advantages of a consolidated 
school and an ordinary country school in the correct 
utilization of project material? 

6. What work is being done in your own school that 
has been characterized project work, and what was 
the basis for its being so termed? 

7. May there be projects on the "play level" as well as 
on the "work level"? 

8. List the necessary characteristics of a project. List 
the desirable characteristics of a project. Define a 
project. 

9. Is there a real difference of opinion as to the meaning 
that should be involved in the word project or is 
the difference only apparent? 



CHAPTER III 

THE RELATION OF THE PROJECT METHOD TO INSTINCTS 

The project method is based upon and related to the 
primitive instincts. Every human being, influenced by his 
instincts and reactions, tends to develop along lines similar 
to those of other animals. The intellectualized activities of 
man which so sharply differentiate him from other animals 
are fundamentally based upon the animal instincts and 
reactions. While there is a marked difference between man 
and other animals in ability to do and to develop, the highest 
accomplishments not only are based upon but inextricably 
are interwoven with the instincts and animal behavior. The 
project method, consequently, utilizing the intellectualized 
activities of man, is based upon and in numerous ways 
vitally is interrelated with the primitive instincts and 
reactions. 

All conscious existence, so far as is known*, has a physical 
basis. From the educational standpoint it seems useless to 
speculate concerning any prior or future state of the indi- 
vidual in relation to this mortal life. An actual situation, 
and not a theory, confronts our schools. Insofar as a 
prior existence can be utilized in the development of the child, 
whether this existence were undifferentiated or not, depen- 
dence must be placed upon the instincts, reactions, capaci- 
ties, and abilities that are inherent in the individual. Since 
the present situation can be interpreted in relation to the 
past from which it is evolved, it would be fortunate if every 

50 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts 51 

factor in a prior existence could be ascertained. In the 
absence of such data, however, resort must be made to the 
judging of the human organism at birth by its constitution 
and the activities in which it engages after birth, first un- 
modified by experience, and later, when modified by experi- 
ence, seeking to ascertain the extent of modification. With 
respect to the next world, the schools are not directly con- 
cerned, except to the extent that the proper adjustment of 
the individual to the physical and social environment of this 
world is compatible with and influences his religious beliefs, 
or to the extent that his religious beliefs may affect his school 
work. His educative development inevitably affects his con- 
ceptions of the hereafter, and to some extent the social con- 
ception of the hereafter will affect the individual's educa- 
tional development, but the direct effects in shaping religious 
beliefs are a function of the churches rather than the schools. 
Since the only kind of conscious existence known to man from 
the practical standpoint is in relation to a physical body, 
the only kind of conscious existence that can be trained by 
man is that which is dependent upon the physical body for 
its unfolding. 

There are varying degrees of development among animals. 
Through the careful work of scientists, the theory concerning 
the evolution of plant and animal forms has been substan- 
tially established. The theory becomes all the more striking 
when the evidences of evolution are produced for each sci- 
ence, for while no one subject perhaps conclusively estab- 
lishes the theory of evolution, the combined evidence of 
subjects is so strong as to drive one almost inevitably to 
the adoption of this theory. At the extremes, among living 
animals are found a one-celled form with very simple re- 
actions on the one hand, and a multicelled, highly complex 
organization, man himself, on the other hand. Between these 



52 The Project Method m Education 

extremes there are varying degrees of physical organization. 
Scientists have considered the problem of establishing a 
scale of development among animals comparatively simple, 
with the exception of the last step, the evolution of man. 
The physical characteristics of man are comparable to those 
of other animals, but, basing the inferences in part on the 
mental life of man, it has been believed that the quality of 
organization is radically different. The gap, even physically, 
between man and his nearest kindred, the monkey, is so 
great that strong efforts have been put forth to find the 
"missing link." In spite of this gap, however, there is strong 
evidence that man merely is the summation in the evolution 
of animals. 

For the establishment of relations with the environment, 
there are varying degrees of complexity of physical organi- 
zation among animals. The simplest organism, the amoeba, 
has undifferentiated parts, but a form of considerable vari- 
ability. In some respects its behavior resembles that of 
inanimate materials, while in other respects its behavior is 
like unto that of more complex organisms. It can send arm- 
like projections out in every direction. When one of these 
arms comes into contact with a particle, the rest of the 
organism may be drawn up so as to envelop the particle. 
In a similar fashion it may seek to escape an enemy, or 
change its direction of movement when confronted by an 
obstacle. Energy for movement is produced within itself, 
and its movements primarily are for the purpose of securing 
food or of avoiding dangers. While it reacts to its environ- 
ment in such a way as to conserve its best interests, there is 
no more reason for assuming a conscious existence on the 
part of the amoeba than there is for assuming a conscious 
existence for the numerous organic cells of the blood of 
higher animals. (Kirkpatrick, Edwin A. Genetic Psychol- 
ogy, p. 42.) Professor Kirkpatrick has written: "The 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts 53 

migratory cells of some of the corpuscles of the blood of 
human beings, and many of the bacteria, behave in a manner 
very much the same as the amoeba. Immunity to disease of 
various kinds is due in many cases to increase in number of 
those cells in the blood that feed upon and destroy the 
disease germs. If such cells in our own bodies are organic 
mechanisms without individual consciousness, the amoeba and 
other lower forms of animals probably are, while, on the 
other hand, if we regard the amoeba as conscious, we should 
think of many of the cells of our own body and the swimming 
spores of plants as having each a consciousness of its own." 
Monkeys, which approach most nearly the ability of man 
to learn, probably have no reasoning ability comparable to 
man's reflective thvnkvng. The monkey commonly has been 
regarded as the animal that has abilities more nearly like 
unto those of the human being. As a result of experiments 
carried on by Professor Thorndike (Thorndike, Edward L. 
Animal Intelligence, 237-240) the following conclusions 
were reached: "The monkeys represent progress in mental 
development from the generalized mammalian type toward 
man: — 

"1. In their sensory equipment, in the presence of focalized 
vision. 

2. In their motor equipment, in the coordinated move- 
ments of the hand and the eye. 

3. In their instincts or inherited nervous connections, in 
their general physical and mental activity. 

4. In their method of learning or associative process ; in 

a. Quicker formation of associations, 

b. Greater number of associations, 

c. Greater delicacy of associations, 

d. Greater complexity of associations, 

e. Greater permanence of associations. . . . 



54 The Project Method in Education 

"In their method of learning, the monkeys do not advance 
far beyond the generalized mammalian type, but in their 
proficiency in that method they do. They seem at least to 
form associations very much faster, and they form very 
many more. They also seem superior in the delicacy and 
in the complexity of the associations formed and the con- 
nections seem to be more permanent. 

"This progress may seem, and doubtless will to the thinker 
who looks upon the human intellect as a collection of func- 
tions of which ideation, judgment and reasoning are chief, 
to be slight. To my mind it is not so in reality. For it 
seems to me highly probable that the so-called 'higher' intel- 
lectual processes of human beings are but secondary results 
of the general function of having free ideas and that the 
general function is the result of the formation after the 
fashion of the animals of a very great number of associa- 
tions. I should therefore say, 'Let us not wonder at the 
comparative absence of free ideas in the monkeys, much less 
at the absence of inferences or concepts. Let us not wonder 
that the only demonstrable intellectual advance of the mon- 
keys over the mammals in general is the change from a few, 
narrowly confined, practical associations to a multitude of 
all sorts, for that may turn out to be at the bottom the 
only demonstrable advance of man, an advance which 
in connection with a brain acting with increased delicacy 
and irritability brings in its train the functions which mark 
off human mental faculty from that of all other animals." 

The nervous system of the human being is very complex. 
The nervous system consists of (1) the central nervous 
system, including the brain and the spinal cord, (2) the 
sympathetic nervous system, including ganglia distributed 
here and there in the body, (3) neurones, connecting the 
central nervous system with various parts of the body, and 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts 55 

(4) special apparatus, as eyes and ears, for the placing of 
the nervous system within contact of the environment. The 
significant part of the nervous system consists of neurones, 
or nerve cells. A neurone may be long or short, and may 
consist of a nucleus plus a fibrous extent, with numerous 
branches. The nervous system includes millions of these 
neurones, each a distinct unit, and yet holding such a rela- 
tion to each other that inter-activities readily are estab- 
lished. 

The nervous system receives, transfers, and sends mes- 
sages. Practically every part of the body, including both 
the internal organs and the surface, is provided with com- 
munication with the central nervous system by means of 
sensory or afferent neurones. The central nervous system, 
also, is provided with motor or efferent neurones by means 
of which muscular action may be induced in every part of the 
body. Within the central nervous system are connecting or 
associative neurones by means of which the impressions re- 
ceived through the afferent neurones are communicated to 
the efferent neurones in such a way that the appropriate 
action takes place. The connections thus established be- 
tween impressions and expressions seemingly are not acci- 
dental in many instances, even though almost every neurone 
directly or indirectly can affect every other neurone, but 
there seems to be some instinctive selection by means of which 
many desirable reactions are effected. Some of these im- 
pressions are translated into action without the aid of con- 
sciousness, while other relations definitely are established 
through the brain, the process being intellectualized. The 
most significant work of the nervous system is the interpre- 
tation of the incoming impression in such a way that the 
corresponding expression is appropriate. Whether the proc- 
ess is intellectualized or is automatic, if the consequent re- 



56 The Project Method in Education 

action results favorably, the nervous system will tend to 
repeat the performance under a similar stimulus. If the 
reaction results unfavorably, other reactions will be effected 
until, if possible, pleasant results are secured. The nervous 
system consequently is like unto a telephone wire in that it 
is affected by varying factors, and in that it transmits 
messages, but it is unlike the telephone line in that the 
nervous system itself is modifiable, through the impressions 
and expressions that are made. Not only do certain actions 
become habitual, but the brain action itself is modified, and 
its action at any time largely is determined by its inherent 
and related characteristics, plus the effects of impressions 
of the past and the present stimulus. 

The distinction between the way a monkey learns and the 
way a human being learns may be one of degree. Professsor 
Thorndike in discussing the "Evolution of the Human Intel- 
lect" (Thorndike, Edward L. Popular Science Monthly, 
Nov., 1901) says: "The process involved in the learning 
(by a monkey) was evidently a process of selection. The 
animal is confronted by a state of affairs or, as we may 
call it, a 'situation.' He reacts in the way that he is moved 
by his innate nature or previous training to do, by a num- 
ber of acts. These acts include the particular act that is 
appropriate and he succeeds. In later trials the impulse 
to this one act is more and more stamped in, this one act 
is more and more associated with that situation, is selected 
from amongst the others by reason of the pleasure it brings 
the animal. The profitless acts are stamped out; the im- 
pulses to perform them in that situation are weakened by 
reason of the positive discomfort or the absence of pleasure 
resulting from them. So the animal finally performs in that 
situation only the fitting act. 

"Here we have the simplest and at the same time the most 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instwets 57 

widespread sort of intellect or learning in the world. There 
is no reasoning, no process of inference or comparison; 
there is no thinking about things, no putting two and two 
together; there are no ideas — the animal does not think of 
the box or of the food or of the act he is to perform. He 
simply comes after the learning to feel like doing a certain 
thing under certain circumstances which before the learning 
he did not feel like doing. . . . 

"The distinction between man and other animals may be 
summed up as follows : 'The function of intellect is to pro- 
vide a means of modifying our reactions to the circumstances 
of life, so that we may secure pleasure, the symptom of wel- 
fare. Its general law is that when in a certain situation 
an animal acts so that pleasure results, that act is selected 
from all those performed and associated with that situation, 
so that, when the situation recurs, the act will be more likely 
to follow than it was before; that on the contrary the acts 
which, when performed in a certain situation, have brought 
discomfort, tend to be dissociated from that situation. The 
intellectual evolution of the race consists in an increase in 
the number, delicacy, complexity, permanence and speed of 
formation of such associations. In man this increase reaches 
such a point that an apparently new type of mind results, 
which conceals the real continuity of the process. This 
mental evolution parallels the evolution of the cell structures 
of the brain from few and simple and grows to many and 
complex and delicate. 

"Nowhere more truly than in his mental capacities is man 
a part of nature. His instincts, that is, his inborn tenden- 
cies to feel and act in certain ways, show throughout marks 
of kinship with the lower animals, especially with our nearest 
relatives physically, the monkeys. His sense-powers show 
no new creation. His intellect we have seen to be a simple 



58 The Project Method in Education 

though extended variation from the general animal sort. This 
again is presaged by the similar variations in the case of 
the monkeys. Amongst the minds of animals that of man 
leads, not as a demigod from another planet, but as a king 
from the same race." 

The teacher should consider the learning process both as 
influenced by instincts and reactions, and by "free ideas." 
Approached from the physiological and psychological stand- 
point, the almost inextricable relation of free ideas and rea- 
soning to the animal instincts and reactions clearly is seen 
even by those who regard the mental, higher life as some- 
thing entirely apart from the activities of the lower animals. 
Man's reactions to certain stimuli are similar to the reactions 
of the lower animals. If the immediate results are satisfying, 
in either case, there is a tendency for a resultant fixed type 
of behavior. Even under conditions permitting the liberal 
use of "free ideas," numerous instincts, primitive or modified, 
constantly are involved. It is scarcely probable that man's 
reasoning activities can be divorced from his animal nature. 

The instincts of self-preservation, racial perpetuation, 
and association normally are very strong. The instincts of 
self-preservation involve the putting forth of the requisite 
activity for supplying the needs of life, withstanding ene- 
mies, and avoiding dangers. The instinctive tendency to 
perpetuate the race not only involves reproduction, but an 
adequate care of the young. The tendency of numerous 
animals, including man, to live in groups gives rise to 
numerous instinctive modes of behavior by means of which 
the individual tends to conform to group standards. Among 
the higher animals, particularly in man, there are prepara- 
tory instincts, as play, imitation, and curiosity, which tend 
to prepare the individuals while young for later adult par- 
ticipation in the environment. 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts 59 

A variety of instincts may enter into every situation. It 
is not difficult to understand the classes of instincts that 
are present in children, but the practical utilization of these 
instincts is another matter. Numerous instincts are opposed. 
Under certain conditions the instinct of courage, which in- 
duces one to take aggressive measures, is desirable; under 
other conditions, the instinct of fear, which may take the 
form of caution, is desirable. The instinct to act in all 
cases should be tempered by the probable desirable conse- 
quences both to the individual and to society. Some instincts 
consequently must be inhibited, while others may be encour- 
aged. There is no known course of training, however, by 
means of which the instincts can be utilized separately. In 
the same situation confronting the individual numerous in- 
stincts, more or less undifferentiated, will function. The 
simple analysis merely helps us to understand the complex 
act. 

There are numerous intellectualized forms of activity that 
Inherently are dependent upon instincts. Among the posi- 
tive forms that instincts take, the utilization of which is 
desirable in the project work of the school, may be noted 
the following: (1) The desire to possess; (2) the desire 
to collect; (3) the desire to construct; (4) the desire to 
entertain; (5) the desire to help others; (6) the desire to 
protect others; (7) the desire to compete with others; (8) 
the desire to conquer; (9) the desire to stand high in the 
estimation of others; (10) the desire to amount to something 
over a span of time, which keeps a person at work even 
under disagreeable conditions. 

The reasoning ability of man is fundamental in helping 
him to control his instincts. Without the ability to reason, 
to profit by the past, and consciously to plan for the future, 
the great social organization of society would be impossible. 



60 The Project Method m Education 

The present wonderful record of society is due in large part 
to the ability of man to subordinate his instincts in such a 
way as to serve the general welfare, and to exercise his 
instincts in such a way as to permit cooperative utilization 
of resources. Without the social inheritance, the progress of 
the individual would be keenly limited, and without adequate 
direction, by means of which the social inheritance relating 
to desirable modes of behavior is economically acquired by 
the child, the present social structure would be impossible. 
Each child is born into a social organization which teaches 
him, and at the same time from which he learns, through 
the exercise of his intelligence, what instincts to encourage 
and what instincts to inhibit or modify. 

It is through the project method that the hopes of the 
civilized world are realized. The human race should be 
grateful that, however the differentiation has come about, 
mankind has progressed far beyond the lower animals. With- 
out the reasoning ability of man, he would be among the 
weakest animals of creation. It is not man's superior physi- 
cal strength over other animals, but his superior mental 
strength, by means of which he can make the forces of nature 
serve him, that man has risen to the place of supremacy 
on earth. It is only as this superior mental strength can 
be maintained that man can hope to continue his supremacy, 
and it is only as this superior mental strength is increased 
that man can hope to continue to move from growth to 
growth. The project method utilizes in every desirable way 
possible the instincts and reactions of the child as the basic 
point of departure for the realization of a human life. It 
goes beyond these primitive tendencies to action, however, 
in that it places the emphasis for the development of a human 
being upon the rational processes. It does not seek to 
consider the subject matter as subject matter apart from 



The Relation of the Project Method to Instincts 61 

the child, but utilizes the materials of the environment in 
developing the child. Since the normal reactions of the 
child are to situations, the project method preferably appeals 
to the rational activities of the child through unit situations. 



Problems 

1. Illustrate some ways that individuals adjust them- 
selves to their environment, (a) without the process 
ever having been intellectualized, (b) the process once 
having been intellectualized, but later functioning in- 
dependently of the intellect. 

2. If the project method is regarded as including all 
intellectualized accomplishment, would the instinctive 
method be the proper term for all adjustments and 
development otherwise accomplished? Can you think 
of another term that seems better? 

%. What arguments, if any, direct or indirect, — may be 
advanced to justify the inference that a conscious 
existence is probable apart from the physical body ? 

4. What are the various evidences for and against evo- 
lution of all life forms from a common simple begin- 
ning? 

5. What are the arguments for and against the theory 

that animals can think? 

6. What are "free ideas"? Illustrate. 

7. Give five illustrations of how the yielding to instincts 

has caused individuals to run amuck. Give five illus- 
trations of how the yielding to instincts has subserved 
the best interests of society. 

8. Select some situation and analyze the different in- 
stincts that were concerned. 



62 The Project Method m Education 

9. Is it possible to become so highly educated that one's 
instincts always are under control? 
10. What would be the probable position of man upon 
the earth if he were unable to reason, but otherwise 
were constituted as at present? 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SOCIAL BASIS FOR THE PROJECT METHOD 

Education should pomt in the direction of adult activities. 
Whether the general aim of education is stated as social 
efficiency, adjustment to environment, desirable citizenship, 
the building up of desirable responses, or in some other way, 
it is generally agreed that the school work should be of such 
a nature as to point in the direction of adult activities, 
permitting the child to pass from the school room with 
knowledge, skills, habits, and attitudes that will enable him 
to enter intelligently and efficiently into adult activities. In 
the organization of a course of study, the subject matter 
that should be taught and the methods that should be em- 
ployed, in order that the child at the close of his school 
career properly may enter upon his larger responsibilities 
on the threshold of the busy world, must be squarely faced. 

Education should permit the child, as a child, to enter 
mto the fullness of living. A similar question, also, should 
be raised concerning the child. It likewise is generally agreed 
that no one should be robbed of the "golden hours of child- 
hood." Every one, while a child, should be permitted to 
have a child's joys and sorrows. Adults should make the 
period of childhood as happy as possible for the children. 
To impose upon them, prematurely, the problem of the adult 
group is to deprive them of the opportunity of living nat- 
urally in their own sphere. They cannot appreciate much 
of the adult material, and their young lives needlessly may 

63 



64 The Project Method m Education 

be impoverished. If we are to respect the rights of children 
to live the lives of children, we must consider their state of 
development, their interests, and their inclinations. We 
must develop them in their own sphere. We should raise 
the questions, what subject matter should be taught? and 
what methods should be employed? in order that the child 
can enter into the fullness of existence. 

The point of view formerly centered about subject matter. 
In times not altogether past, so far as practice is con- 
cerned, the dominant if not exclusive emphasis was placed 
on subject matter. A systematic, logical organization of 
material was presented. A fairly definite body of subject 
matter was adopted, and the teacher's business was to assure 
herself that the content was mastered. The child's interests 
were not consulted. The child was the victim. The material 
was assigned, and the child somehow must master it, or else 
suffer the consequences of being classified among the dul- 
lards or shirkers. There was an objective standard, adopted 
from the adult viewpoint, to which he must conform. The 
formal, mechanical requirements were met more or less 
indifferently. The old saying that "we send the child to 
school to be educated, and the other children educate him," 
in a certain sense, was true. The pupils found their own 
way of reacting according to 1 their interests. Since depar- 
ture from the formal requirements was regarded as a breach 
of discipline, it is not to be wondered at that the pupils 
were regarded as unruly. Since the environment of the child 
offered a limited opportunity in the selection of activities, 
it naturally followed that many acts were committed that, 
even according to modern standards, are to be condemned. 
The child was not interested in whether his experiences 
socially were desirable or undesirable, so long as they seemed 
to afford him a legitimate outlet for his pent-up energies. 

The emphasis upon subject matter led to serious dissatis- 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 65 

faction with results. That something was wrong with the 
educational system gradually began to dawn upon the lead- 
ers of educational thought. It finally was evident that the 
subject matter was being exalted at the expense of the child. 
Certainly it was desirable that a child should become an adult, 
equipped to perform an adult's duties. The doctrine was 
established that the teacher should follow the lead of the 
child. The child would select those things in which he had 
an inherent interest and would undergo a natural, normal 
growth. The child would deal with the real problems of 
children. He was not being prepared for life, but was 
living a life. He would be an adult soon enough, and then 
he would have time enough to worry about the problems of 
the adult group. He could solve his childhood problems on 
the basis of need, and as an adult, he could settle his adult 
problems in a similar manner. As he became older his inter- 
ests would approach closer and closer to those of the adult 
group, and he naturally, without any sharp boundary line 
being recognized, would become an adult and cease to be a 
child. The child was not to be crowded, but was to make 
his own selection of materials, and was to interpret them 
in his own time, and in his own way. The general plan has 
many attractive and desirable phases. "If a man could be 
secure that his life would endure, as of yore, for a thousand 
long years," the plan in general might be feasible. The 
evolution of society, however, has involved thousands of 
years. The child has the problem of recapitulating the 
racial experiences in a few years of time. An important 
factor in delimiting this idealistic plan is lack of time. If 
the child is allowed to follow his own interests, he may 
commit acts or adopt moral values that are inimical to 
the best interests of society. Stated in its extreme form, 
therefore, the viewpoint is impracticable. 

The present tendency is to correlate the interests of the 



66 The Project Method in Education 

child and subject matter. The present tendency is to cor- 
relate the two viewpoints. The best method of procedure 
seems to be somewhere between the extremes. It is too much 
to expect that the final viewpoint is being perfected, although 
it would seem as if more effective ways are being evolved. 
The undue emphasis that has been placed upon the subject 
matter or upon the child's interests is fortunate, for, while 
the disadvantages of each viewpoint have been recognized, 
the advantages as well have been clearly revealed. The pres- 
ent opportunity seems to involve the organization and appli- 
cation of a course of study that will involve the advantages 
of each viewpoint and reduce to a minimum the weaknesses. 
The complexity of modem institutions adds to the diffi- 
culty of properly presenting educational materials. In the 
first chapter, it was noted that the institutional life of man 
has been inaugurated and evolved in the light of his experi- 
ences. These institutions have become more and more com- 
plex and apparently so far removed, in some phases, from 
the individual that it is not always easy for adults, not to 
speak of children, to understand their vital meaning. It is 
easy to understand the need of working in order to satisfy 
immediate wants ; it is less easy to feel the need of exercising 
forethought for the morrow. A child can follow the instruc- 
tions of a policeman, who orders him off the grass, but many 
adults have difficulty in establishing vital relationships be- 
tween their own lives and the great democratic institutions 
of the federal government. A child can worship good and 
bad spirits as embodied in specific people, animals, trees and 
stones, but trained minds frequently worship generalized 
spirits, "in spirit and in truth" with more or less indiffer- 
ence. The institutions which at first served the needs of 
man directly now serve, in part, the needs of man indirectly. 
Man's interest in these institutions has become in part imme- 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 67 

diate, but in part remote. These remote interests are none 
the less vital. A person less readily understands and fulfills 
an obligation, however, that does not have a direct personal 
relationship. 

Social, institutional progress, moreover, has not taken 
place systematically and regularly, but pulsatingly. A pos- 
sibility seemingly has existed at times of devolution; that 
the social inheritance might be lessened or even lost. These 
alternations of periods of uplift and periods of depression 
have led some students of the past to conclude that society 
moves in a circle. The modern viewpoint, however, regards 
society as moving vacillatingly into higher planes. Appar- 
ent devolution is but a relative retardation of evolution. 

In order to benefit from racial experiences, it is not neces- 
sarily desirable to recapitulate racial experiences m the 
order of acquisition by the race. A study of social evolution 
indicates that there has not been a best order of accumula- 
tions of racial experiences from the simple to the complex, 
from the former to the present, which children should reca- 
pitulate. The individual, it is true, tends to recapitulate 
racial experience, but not necessarily in the order in which 
the racial experiences accumulated; the racial experiences 
have been acquired, in part, by the trial and error method, 
and have been attended with much sorrow and pain. It 
became possible to formulate problems and the answers there- 
to, so that when the actual situation existed, it could be met 
in the most economical fashion. Succeeding generations, 
therefore, were saved from misfortunes of preceding genera- 
tions. They did not have to live over again racial experi- 
ences, but, profiting therefrom, could adopt the activities 
that would produce the most satisfactory results. 

Children should be trained to meet both simple and difficult 
situations. The problem of education is complicated by the 



68 The Project Method m Education 

necessity of training boys and girls for active aggressive 
participation in situations of a general as well as of a 
specific nature; situations that awaken a direct interest and 
situations that awaken an indirect interest; situations that 
meet a need directly and situations that meet a need indi- 
rectly. Not only are the complexities and generalities of 
modern life difficult to understand, but the order in which 
the present has been evolved is not, alone, a satisfactory 
criterion for determining the way that the child shall 
be introduced to modern life. In adopting complexities, 
however, society has not eliminated the simple. In to-day's 
environment, therefore, both simple and complex situations 
are to be found, and situations, which have both simple and 
complex elements. The simple adjustments of earlier days 
may be used in helping to explain the present. 

There is a sequential order nevertheless in which the racial 
experiences may be organized. Approaching the project 
from the standpoint of the racial experiences acquired, and 
the order in which they were acquired, the teacher receives 
suggestions that indicate, but do not dictate, ways of organ- 
izing materials. With the maturing of the individual, 
through experiences and through natural development, in- 
creasingly difficult situations can be presented. The adapta- 
tion of the material to the ability of the child is insufficient. 
If a keen interest can be aroused, the results will be much 
more satisfactory. 

Educationally, it is desirable to distinguish between the 
teacher's and the pupil's project. The instinctive tendency 
of a teacher who thoroughly is interested in the subject 
matter is to consider the project from her own standpoint. 
How many teachers have found the pupils of their classrooms 
hopelessly floundering with the material under discussion! 
The teacher subconsciously has assumed that the pupils know 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 69 

as much about a certain topic as she does, and has attempted 
to proceed with the class discussion dealing with the project 
from the standpoint of an extension of her own knowledge. 
When the pupils do not understand her, and cannot answer 
her questions, she wonders wherein the difficulty lies. In- 
stead of blaming herself for the indifference or apparent 
dullness, she may attempt to excuse herself with the adoption 
of the idea that the children are naturally backward or 
disinterested. The teacher's project ideally may be adapted 
to the further development of the teacher, as an individual, 
but considered in the light of her duty to develop pupils, 
it must be condemned. The teacher fails because the teach- 
er's project is not necessarily, and in most instances neces- 
sarily cannot be, the pupil's project. 

The project method, therefore, requires that the project 
shall actually be related to the child's interests and needs. 
The teacher who is not discriminating sufficiently between 
her own projects and those of the children, needs to become 
again as a little child. It is necessary that the teacher shall 
know the nature of the child's world and the varied interests 
of children which aid in their growth. The project, to be 
maximally effective, must involve a hundred per cent, real 
situation to the child. The topic for discussion must arise 
out of the needs or interests of his world, and should involve 
some specific need. The pupil does not secure his incentive 
for study, according to this plan, from some outside agency, 
as the teacher, but from a genuine motive for studying be- 
cause the topic involves problems personally vital to him. 

A real difficulty in teaching projects required by society 
is to make the projects real projects to the pupils. If the 
teacher desires that the projects of the school really shall 
be the projects of the pupils, she finds it very difficult, if 
not impossible, to realize her ideal because of the work defi- 



tO The Project Method in Education 

nitely laid out in the course of study. Much of the material 
indicated may be included, not on the basis of the child's 
interests or needs, but on the basis of the knowledge which 
has come to be regarded necessary for the adult group. 
It may be that some of this material no longer has the value 
that it once had, because of changing conditions, but custom 
has decreed that it must be taught. Even the adult might 
have difficulty in adopting some of the projects as his own. 
Teaching is bound to be unsatisfactory if the adult view- 
point is forced upon the child, or if material of little value 
to society, as at present organized, is emphasized. 

Prof. Dewey has said : "Interest is obtained not by think- 
ing about it and consciously aiming at it, but by considering 
and aiming at the conditions that lie back of it, and compel 
it. If we can discover a child's urgent needs and powers, 
and if we can supply an environment of materials, appliances, 
and resources, physical, social, and intellectual — to direct 
their adequate operation — we shall not have to think about 
interest. It will take care of itself. The problems of edu- 
cators, teachers, parents, the state, is to provide the environ- 
ment that induces educative or developing activities, and 
where these are found the one thing needful in education is 
secured." (Dewey. Interest and Effort in Education, pp. 
95-96.) 

The establishment of real situations is somewhat inter- 
fered with by the restrictions placed upon the individual by 
the institutions. Children, perhaps necessarily, are not al- 
lowed to participate in political elections, and hardly can 
feel the interest in an election that an adult may exhibit. 
In the family the general control of affairs is assumed by 
the parents. In the church, children are allowed a minor 
voice. 

When a variety of industries was carried on in the homes, 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 71 

and when children were employed in factories, they bore 
much the same relations to industries as adults. It is now 
recognized that there is a preparatory period of life to 
which every person is entitled, and that only to a limited 
extent should children be permitted to be engaged in indus- 
trial work. Many places, as parks, public libraries, and art 
galleries, are open to children and adults. In all cases, where 
admission charges are made, however, as at theaters, the 
opportunities of children are limited. Children, conse- 
quently, participate in the institutional life of their group 
in a restricted way, and under the general direction of the 
adult members. They become acquainted with these institu- 
tions primarily from the standpoint of the use of institutions 
to them. Their interests in the home, the church, the school, 
the industries, and the state are chiefly concerned with the 
numerous ways that these institutions affect their own lives. 

The influence of a person in effecting institutional changes 
increases from childhood to adulthood. The child wishes to 
engage in certain types of activities, but institutional life 
forbids ; he wishes to extend his experiences in another direc- 
tion and institutional life permits. Gradually he comes to 
conform his life more or less to these restrictions and privi- 
leges. As he grows older, he comes to see that the specific 
requirements of the institutions are not nearly so fixed as 
once seemed to be the case, and that the dynamic is ever 
present. As he develops, his outlook broadens, and he be- 
comes interested in the policies directing these institutions. 
He desires them to serve certain ends. Finally, he is per- 
mitted to use his influence directly in shaping the policies. 

The economical use of the project method requires a usable 
understanding of the child's experiences with institutions. 
The restrictions placed upon children make it difficult to 
secure an ideal form of motivation in preparing children for 



72 The Project Method m Education 

adult activities. The situation is not by any means hopeless, 
however, since children have a broad acquaintance with adult 
activities. The relationships of children to their environ- 
ment suggests an important type of motivation. An under- 
standing of institutional life may be approached from the 
standpoint of use. It is but a step from the use of material 
to serve the needs of the child to a consideration of the use 
of material to serve the needs of other people. How other 
people are affected by their environments, therefore, may be 
related to the child's world. Insofar as it is desirable to 
study the origin, nature, and purpose of phases of institu- 
tions, the child's experiences suggest an effective method of 
attack. 

Certain interests of the child in his entvironment should be 
encouraged, while other interests should be discouraged. 
While the primitive interests of children must be recognized 
in teaching, all interests should not be equally encouraged. 
Society, as at present organized, is not a "natural" but 
an "artificial" unit. Mankind has not advanced by follow- 
ing the lines of least resistance for the individual. Certain 
instincts have necessarily been inhibited to promote the gen- 
eral welfare or to protect the individual from himself. Other 
instincts have been encouraged to develop. Unaided, the 
child would exercise both good and bad instincts at too great 
cost. The child's activities, therefore, need to be directed, 
but in such a way that he will feel that he is making his 
own selection, and mastering his own problems. 

Acquired interests of a desirable nature should be devel- 
oped, The direct interests of the child are particularly sig- 
nificant during the earlier years of school life. It is true 
that the child may do a thing because he is interested in it, 
but he also may become interested in a situation through 
the doing. It is possible for an individual to force himself 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 73 

to be attentive to a situation so as to interpret it. Even 
though the task may be performed at first from the stand- 
point of duty, and with a positive dislike of the task, an 
interest in the activity may be aroused. This indirect or 
acquired interest may be utilized in the same way as a direct 
or primitive interest as a point of departure for further 
growth. Many of the interests of life are acquired. In 
this way the spiritual of man triumphs over the material. 

The assumption of an attitude of interest is helpful in 
bringing a child into desirable contact with a project. In 
assuming an attitude of dislike for a situation, a person need- 
lessly is prejudicing himself in advance. Since every situa- 
tion possesses aspects that are either attractive or un- 
attractive according to the viewpoint, a person is likely to 
find about what he is looking for. An habitual attitude of 
dislike for types of situations thus may be created. The 
individual easily is discouraged, becomes pessimistic, and 
either becomes a successful grouch or a failure. The habit 
of adopting an attitude of interest toward every situation 
that one must meet, on the other hand, often enables an 
individual actually to acquire an interest in the situation. 
Since many situations that are not at first sight attractive 
must be met, the adoption of an attitude of liking for a sit- 
uation, even though a forced interest is involved, will help 
one in leading a contented, happy life. 

The pupil should see the need of adapting his activities 
to social requirements. The adult does not always find it 
practicable to engage in those activities for which he seems 
best fitted. Insofar as it is compatible with the best interests 
of society, every individual should be permitted and encour- 
aged to follow the line of activities to which he is particularly 
adapted. Since institutions are organizations of man, and 
not of nature, it is too much to expect that the correct num- 



74 The Project Method m Education 

ber of individuals with the proper aptitudes is being turned 
out of nature's laboratory to meet the multitudinous callings 
of man. If a new line of work is opened up, as the manufac- 
ture of automobiles, it is almost too much to expect that 
nature will produce a special class of babies, who, through 
training, will be better fitted for that industry than any 
other. There will be people, no doubt, with aptitudes in this 
direction, but it is probable that such people existed before 
the invention of automobiles. The situation creates the de- 
mand and men are trained if possible to meet the demand, 
providing the inducements are sufficiently attractive. If a 
man, for example, wants a pair of shoes costing five dollars, 
he probably will not think of making the shoes, but will en- 
gage in work that is an equivalent. He may have his choice 
of two positions, each of which involves practically the same 
amount of manual labor. One position, which he prefers, 
may pay $2.50, and another position, which he does not like 
so well, may pay $15.00 a day. In most instances, he will 
select the better paying position, irrespective of his direct 
personal preferences. The family welfare may induce a man 
to continue in a vocation in which he has little original or 
acquired interest. Perhaps a man wants to work in a shoe 
factory, but he cannot earn enough to supply his family 
with necessities ; he may not want to work in a tobacco fac- 
tory ; he may even feel that his moral sense is stulted thereby, 
but if the compensation is sufficient to care for his family, 
he probably will select the tobacco factory. In choosing a 
vocation, a person needs to consider his tastes, but he also 
needs to consider the probabilities of his being permitted 
to use his abilities if he develops them along a certain line. 
So far as the indications are concerned, a man may be cut 
out for a first class lawyer, or a second class physician. If 
there is a probability that there will be twice as many law- 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 75 

yers as are necessary, but only one-half as many physicians, 
the latter profession evidently offers the more favorable op- 
portunity of service. The individual needs to temper his 
wants with the opportunities that society offers, or will cre- 
ate. The truth involved in this viewpoint was illustrated in 
the recent mobilization when the government placed many 
round pegs into square holes, because the number of round 
holes, figuratively speaking, was less than the number of 
round pegs. 

The school work should be planned so as to help the indi- 
vidual to adapt himself to social requirements. An ideal sit- 
uation in the school room would be the determination of the 
line of activity for which the individual is best adapted, to 
be followed by the proper training that would enable him to 
serve most efficiently in that field. If the adaptation were 
one sided and society adapted itself wholly to the interests 
of the individual, this safely could be done. To a large 
extent, however, the individual must adapt himself to insti- 
tutional needs, the general nature of which is beyond his con- 
trol. Wisdom seems to dictate that in addition to the gen- 
eral preparation which will be useful to every individual's 
future career, the school should seek to give the pupil an 
insight into various adult activities, although the develop- 
ment of special aptitudes should not be discouraged. 

The child's world is not sharply differentiated from the 
adult's world. From what has been said, it readily is under- 
stood that the child's world is not a peculiar world, that it is 
not a world distinct from the adult world. Each personal 
world is made up of the same type of social and physical en- 
vironment, and therefore includes material in common. 
The viewpoint of the child, however, is different, although 
there is an undefined transition from childhood to adulthood. 
The whole child does not at once become a man. Politically 



76 The Project Method m Education 

a child may become a man at twenty-one, physiologically at 
fourteen, if manhood is determined by the ability and oppor- 
tunity to engage in adult activities of a special sort. 

Drill work as an aspect of project work should be given 
on the basis of need. In the gradual movement of the child 
toward adulthood there are certain accomplishments regard- 
ed as desirable which should function more or less as habit. 
It is regarded as desirable that a man should touch his hat 
on passing a lady, but no special drill work to get most boys 
to do this is necessary. They adopt this practice so that 
they may be in harmony with their social environment. In 
the formation of many habits, however, a considerable 
amount of drill work may be necessary. The fundamental 
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- 
sion in arithmetic, and the location of places in geography, 
may involve drills. In all cases where drill work is desirable, 
it is preferable that the individual first shall have had a 
situation, or situations, which could have been met much 
more economically if certain knowledge had been quickly 
available. If the pupil can be left with the inference that 
he will meet numerous situations in the future, involving 
a recurring need, time after time, of this knowledge, he is 
then in a position to feel the need of mastering it once for 
all. 

The project method suggests the desirability of working 
toward the organization of material. Closely associated 
with the drill work is the need of organizing knowledge that 
has been acquired so that it will be held in mind, not so much 
for its own sake, but in order that it may be drawn on more 
readily in meeting life's situations. This classification of 
experiences, and the necessary drill work for the retention 
of knowledge, merely puts the house in onjej* for future 
contingencies. 



The Social Basis for the Project Method 77 

Summary. The study of the relations of the child, ac- 
tual and potential, to the social group indicates that the 
child is born into the institutions to which he must conform, 
although, within limits, he has the ability and opportunity 
of altering them; that since these institutions are artificial 
organizations, they are not necessarily in accord with the 
development of the instinctive impulses ; that the inherent 
interests of children should be utilized in education; that 
acquired as well as primitive interests are legitimate points 
of departure for further growth; that forced attention, 
from the standpoint of duty or because of an indirect stim- 
ulus, may lead to an acquired interest, or even if it does not) 
to a certain extent, is justifiable, because it characterizes 
conditions that prevail in the world at large;' that health- 
iest and most rapid growth occurs when the child feels an 
inherent need to interpret the situation ; that the child's 
world is not distinct from the adult's world, but is com- 
posed of the same elements, with a different emphasis ; that 
the "use" side of things is the viewpoint of the child, and may 
be used as an approach to the adult problems ; that what- 
ever the type of motivation employed, the situation should 
be related to the past experiences of the child, the aim of 
the motivation work being primarily that of getting the 
child to make the observations and interpretations, or to 
engage in the drill work with the keenest possible interest ; 
that the acme of good teaching is reached in getting the child 
to engage wholeheartedly in worth-while purposeful activity. 

Problems 

1. How should the social and the psychological bases for 
the application of the project method be related? 

2. Is there a necessary difference between permitting the 



78 The Project Method m Education 

child to enjoy the fullness of living as a child and the 
preparing of the child for adult activities? 

3. Is the subject matter to be regarded as an end or as 
a means to an end? 

4. How much truth is there in the culture epoch theory? 

5. Is it inevitable that there shall be some square pegs in 
round holes? 

6. To what extent is a person a slave to institutions? 

7. What is the moral tendency of the new-born babe, and 
how may this be utilized in developing the child along 
desirable lines ? 

8. Name five instinctive interests that socially are desir- 
able, that socially are undesirable; name five acquired 
interests that socially are desirable, that socially are 
undesirable. 

9. Is it always necessary for a child to assume an atti- 
tude of interest only because he actually is interested 
in the topic, or is it sometimes desirable that he should 
assume an attitude of interest at the time of beginning 
his study, whether he actually is interested or not? 

10. How does the child's world differ from the adult's 
world? 

11. Would it be possible economically to do away with 
drill work? 

12. To what extent should organized material be given a 
class for general guidance? 



CHAPTER V 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MOTIVATION IN THE USE OF THE 
PROJECT METHOD 

The teacher's work is to place the child into effective re- 
lations with his environment. In the preceding chapters it 
has been shown that the project method, as a method, is 
beyond the control of teachers, that it is nature's way of 
securing results. The teacher, therefore, is relieved of every 
responsibility in the formulation of the method itself. Does 
not this, then, minimize the importance of the teacher's 
work? Decidedly it does not. The teacher needs to recog- 
nize the ways of nature in developing the child. Her big 
problem is properly to relate the situations to the child's 
experiences and attitudes so that the child can grow. Her 
problem is to get the child's interest aroused so that he will 
feel the need and if possible the want of mastering the situ- 
ation. She has the task of getting the child to focus his 
attention and interests upon situations whose mastery will 
develop him in the direction demanded by social welfare. 
Her opportunity, in short, lies in the direction of stimu- 
lating an interest in worth-while situations to such an ex- 
tent that the child is willing and even anxious to put forth 
effort in their interpretation. 

Every teacher should attempt to relate the work to the 
child in such a way that there is no problem of discipline. 
How great is the teacher's opportunity may be measured 
by the present condition of our schools. In how many 

79 



80 The Project Method m Education 

schoolrooms is the attention focussed on the subject mat- 
ter instead of on the child? In how many schools is an 
attempt made to adapt the child to the subject-matter 
instead of trying to adapt the subject matter to the child? 
In how many schools do the children memorize language 
forms, and mislead themselves and also their teachers into 
the belief that they really are mastering the substances? 
In how many schools are children confronted with situa- 
tions that involve little or no effort on their part to under- 
stand them because the situations have already been mas- 
tered? In how many schools are children confronted with 
situations that would tax the fully developed and matured 
abilities of an adult to master or even, in a reasonable meas- 
ure, to understand? In how many schools is the work im- 
posed upon the child, instead of the child's imposing upon 
the work? In how many schools does the child initiate 
activities ? In how many schools does the following quotation 
apply: "At least three- fourths of all the time spent by a 
boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson out of a book 
is time thrown away. Perhaps one-fourth of the time is 
devoted to more or less desperate and conscious effort; 
but the remaining portion is dawdled away in thinking of 
the last game of ball and longing for the next game of tag." 
It is too much to expect that an ideal situation can be 
attained and constantly maintained in any schoolroom. Is 
it too much, however, to expect every teacher to get a vis- 
ion of the ideal situation and to devote every energy in an 
effort to realize it? Is it too much to ask that every teacher 
thoroughly shall be trained for her calling, and that society 
shall compensate her sufficiently in order that this may be 
done? Every teacher has had moments of enthusiastic activ- 
ity on the part of every pupil in dealing with some situation. 
All problems of discipline were gone. The situation en- 
grossed their every attention. What a joy it was to teach 



The Significance of Motivation 81 

under such conditions ! Each teacher would do well to an- 
alyze the reasons for the spontaneous response in an endeavor 
to ascertain the essential aspects of ideal teaching. 

A child's work is maximally motivated when he engages in 
whole-hearted, purposeful activity. There are varying de- 
grees of motivation. A person may become so interested in 
effecting a certain result that he feverishly will engage in the 
necessary activity, even to the extent of neglecting other 
duties of life, and perhaps at the expense of his own personal 
comfort or health. Whether such a person has selfish social 
aims in view, his work is strongly motivated. While this 
person practically is living with the situation that so 
strongly attracts him, or to which he concentrates his energy, 
other duties that he cannot leave wholly unperformed may 
be attacked in a very indifferent manner, and with much 
reluctance. Whatever the reason may be that causes a 
person to dislike to perform a task, the work of such a per- 
son is poorly motivated. In spite of the efforts that have 
been made to differentiate between incentive and motive, it 
probably is true that all work, consciously done, involves 
motivation, in some cases, weak even almost to the vanish- 
ing point, in other cases, strong to the extent that it plainly 
is evident. 

H. B. Wilson and G. M. Wilson, in indicating the meaning 
of motivation have written as follows : "That attack upon 
school work which seeks to make its tasks significant and 
purposeful to each child, by relating them to his childish 
experiences, questions, problems, and desires, is called moti- 
vation. The child's work is motivated whenever he sees a real 
use in it — whenever it satisfies some need he feels, provides 
some value he wants, supplies some control he wishes to 
possess, secures some desired end, or helps him to attain any 
definite goal. 

"The goal sought may be near or remote — as near as earn- 



82 The Project Method in Education 

ing a penny to buy a stick of candy, as far as gaining the 
mental and manual ability to construct an airship. So long 
as the child comprehends more or less clearly the relation- 
ship between the work he is doing and the end sought, his 
work is motivated. The more definitely he appreciates this 
relationship, and the more keenly he desires to reach the 
given goal, the more impelling are his motives for working." 
(Wilson, H. B. and G. M. : The Motivation of School Work, 
p. 15.) 

Motivation requires an approach to the subject matter 
from the standpoint of the child. From the child's stand- 
point, the center of activity is the meeting of his mental diffi- 
culties ; from the teacher's standpoint, the center of activity 
is the child and his desirable development. From neither 
viewpoint is subject matter revered for its own sake. Prof. 
Dewey has written : "We may have a ready-made conception 
of use or function, and try the value of what is learned by 
its conformity to this standard. In this case we shall not 
regard any pursuit as properly motivated unless we see that 
it performs some special office that we have laid down as 
useful or practical. But if we start from the standpoint of 
the active powers of the children concerned, we shall measure 
the utility of new subject matter and new modes of skill by 
the way in which they promote the growth of these powers." 
(Dewey, John: Interest and Effort in Education, p. 63.) 

Motivation requires that a strong initial interest m the 
situation shall be aroused. An initial interest in the situ- 
ation is highly desirable. This fundamental principle fre- 
quently is recognized in various adult activities. When 
each liberty loan movement was inaugurated, and when funds 
for the Red Cross, the Red Triangle, and other organiza- 
tions were to be raised, great mass meetings, marked with 
much enthusiasm, were held throughout the country. When 



The Significance of Motivation 83 

a political or civic organization launches a campaign, an at- 
tempt ordinarily is made to make the initial movement as 
effective as possible. The attention of the people must be 
secured. Closely related to this securing of attention is 
the holding of the attention, and this involves either the pres- 
entation of material so as to interest the audience to the 
extent that it will want to listen longer, or a conscious, con- 
tinued attitude of attention on the part of the listener. 
Since the latter, so far as voluntary effort is concerned, is 
beyond the power of the speaker to control, emphasis must 
be placed upon the former viewpoint. In the schoolroom the 
same principle should prevail. It is not particularly diffi- 
cult to secure the temporary attention of a group of pupils. 
If the stimulus to which they more or less instinctively re- 
spond is presented in such a way as to interest them, they 
will respond with eagerness. If the material presented does 
not interest, they will respond more or less indifferently. The 
pupils may stay with the task, even though not interested, 
but their effort will be divided between holding the attention 
to the task in hand and the interpretation of the situation. 
An initial momentum, therefore, should be established, not 
alone by securing the temporary attention of the child, but 
by getting him to see some aspect of the situation that will 
cause him to want to study it further. 

It is not always the case that more interest can be aroused 
in a cause than in an effect, or in the first of a succession of 
incidents that occurred in the evolution of product. Chro- 
nological or sequential order, consequently, frequently must 
give way to psychological requirements. As has been noted, 
the child's experiences are largely in relation to use, or in 
relation to the significance of relationships. The finished 
product and its uses may be within the experiences of the 
child. His attention can be secured through the consider- 



84 The Project Method m Education 

ation of data already a part of himself. It is insufficient 
merely to have the child recall and relate what he knows 
about the product and its uses. In the initial presentation 
it is desirable as well to get the child to feel his deficiencies, 
to get the child to feel that the continuation of a study of 
the topic is going to give him additional related, needed in- 
formation. In the presentation of the subject, wheat, for 
example, the logical, sequential order suggests that the topics 
should be presented in the following order: the seed; prepa- 
ration of the seed bed; planting; harvesting; threshing; 
transporting to the elevator ; transporting to the mill ; man- 
ufacture of flour; transportation of flour to the wholesaler; 
the retailer and the customer; making of bread, pies, etc. 

Approached from the psychological standpoint, a some- 
what different organization is suggested. A study of wheat 
involves a consideration of the country and the city part of 
the subject. If the child's experiences are going to be used 
as a point of departure, the child in the country will consider 
first the country end of his subject, while the city child will 
consider first the city end of the topic, and those aspects of 
the industry, whether the child lives in the city or the coun- 
try, with which he has had some contact. In either case, the 
ground ultimately covered may be practically the same, but 
the order in which the parts are handled will differ. The 
logical, sequential order neglects the child and his interests ; 
the psychological order does not necessarily neglect either, 
although in the hands of some teachers the subject matter 
may suffer. 

A continued interest in the situation is necessary. Each 
time that an effort has been made to enlist the help of the 
public in reaching a common end, the initial effort, while 
given marked emphasis, has been regarded as affording in- 
sufficient momentum to carry the issue to ultimate success. 



The Significance of Motivation 85 

Committees have been appointed to solicit, posters have 
been placed in conspicuous positions as reminders, addi- 
tional meetings have been held from time to time, newspapers 
have kept the movement prominently before the public. An 
important consideration was the withholding of certain in- 
formation, or the securing of fresh incidents, so that from 
time to time, during the progress of the campaign, the in- 
terest of the public might be maintained. The principle in- 
volved is of profound significance to teachers. On entering 
into the study of a unit of work, care should be taken to 
arouse interest. It is just as desirable, however, that suffi- 
cient material, making direct appeal to the child's interests, 
shall be reserved for use in connection with a further study 
of the topic. Many plans, promising well, both in school 
and out of school have "fizzled out" simply because the 
energy of the group was concentrated on the initial outburst. 
In journey geography work, for example, the teacher will 
do well to approximate as nearly as possible to the condi- 
tions that actually prevail among travelers. If a person were 
planning intelligently on a trip, he would consider several 
possible journeys from the standpoint of the opportunities 
provided by each journey. Reading, the study of pictures, 
the study of maps, talks with those who could inform him 
of the advantages of the various trips, would enter into the 
preliminary work. After a certain journey had been de- 
cided upon, the traveler would be interested in reading more 
articles, in studying more pictures, in interpreting more 
maps, in interviewing more people, and in making a more 
intensive study of what could be seen and experienced with 
respect to the particular route selected. The trip would be 
in part one of verification or correction of impressions that 
had been received in advance, and in part one of discovery 
of things that had not entered into the original anticipa- 



86 The Project Method in Education 

tions. From the standpoint of sequential occurrence, the 
teacher will be inclined to take up the journey once for all, 
beginning at St. Paul, and noting the changing conditions, 
one after another, downstream to New Orleans. The psycho- 
logical viewpoint suggests a different way. In his own com- 
munity the child may have his choice of visiting one of sev- 
eral parks on some particular day. He will think of the 
animals in Forest Park, of the lagoon in O'Fallon Park, of 
the tennis courts in Carondolet Park, of the playground in 
Tower Grove Park, or of some other concrete thing that he 
can see, or of some activity in which he can engage at the 
various parks. He then will make his selection on the basis 
of what he prefers to do. He then goes to the park with a 
purpose more or less clearly defined, but this does not pre- 
vent him from noticing other things, or engaging in activities 
which he had not thought of before leaving home. 

The teacher, therefore, will begin with some phase of 
travel that has come to the attention of the pupils. A rela- 
tive or a friend has traveled. Some one prominently before 
the public is taking a trip. Several trips that students want 
to take may be suggested by the students. These trips may 
constitute a point of departure. The teacher, as a mem- 
ber of the class, may also indicate trips that she thinks will 
be worth while. The pupils will listen to her and to each 
other. They will decide on the trip, then will make a more 
intensive study of what it has to offer, and lastly, will travel 
in imagination from their point of departure to their des- 
tination, making the trip as realistic as possible. This illus- 
tration is given, not as a type of perfect motivation, for this 
probably would require that the pupils actually be allowed 
to take the trip, but as an example of how, under present 
conditions, the work can be motivated so as to cause children 
to want to study things, some aspects of which pertain domi- 
nantly to adult life. 




The Significance of Motivation 87 

The difficulties involved in maintaining a sustained inter- 
est in a topic suggest the value of variety of material in its 
presentation. Concrete and illustrative materials of vari- 
ous kinds should be used. The child should be appealed to 
through his eyes, through his ears, through his sense of 
touch, taste, and smell. Different viewpoints should be pre- 
sented. The situation should be realistic to each pupil. It 
is recognized that a revival meeting cannot be indefinitely 
conducted with a constantly sustained interest. In some in- 
stances, depending in part on conditions beyond the control 
of the evangelist, this period of time may be one week, in 
other instances ten weeks. No set rule, therefore, can be 
adopted as to how long it is wise to continue the study of a 
topic. This depends on the special conditions. Some 
teachers may find it profitable to discuss the journey from 
St. Louis to New Orleans, for a week or two, while other 
teachers may find three or four days sufficient. Just as the 
detailed material must vary in the presentation of a topic, 
so the topics themselves should vary before monotonous 
deadness takes the place of wholehearted interest. 

Motivation is desirable at the close of a unit of study. 
If the work properly has been motivated the child constantly 
has engaged in purposeful activity. He has had a general 
motive in mind throughout the period that the topic was 
studied in that he wanted to meet the conditions of the topic 
as a whole. He has had numerous specific motives and pur- 
poses in mind in the different aspects of the situation that 
confronted him from day to day. He has interpreted the 
material. As his knowledge of the general topic has grown, 
the ultimate purpose for the studying of the topic comes 
nearer and nearer to realization. Each day the general topic 
in part has been interpreted, and the answer in part has been 
indicated. The general purpose of the student has helped to 
sustain his interest in the details of his study. At last the 



88 The Project Method in Education 

various parts of the situation have been analyzed, and the 
child has grown into a knowledge of the situation as a whole. 
His purpose has been realized. The joy of attaining is sup- 
plemented with the joy of attainment. He not only has felt 
but has met a real need. Step by step the end has been 
reached. He is not yet satisfied. The material with which 
he has been working is more or less loosely coordinated. In 
order that he may have an intelligent, coherent apprecia- 
tion of the topic as a whole, he wants to bring together the 
details which he has mastered. As a last step, therefore, he 
properly relates the material in some organized fashion. 
The mastery of the situation has satisfied his purposes. 
While he has been at work, however, his interests in things 
in general have grown, and he has increased his knowledge, 
and therefore possible points of contact with his environment. 
Out of his enlarged experiences and interests, therefore, 
arise increased opportunities for motivating other topics as 
a means of further rapid natural growth. 

The work of each recitation period should be strongly mo- 
tivated. In our consideration of motivation in project work, 
emphasis purposely has been placed upon a unit of work 
rather than upon a unit of time. Several recitation periods 
may be involved in working out a unit of work. The story 
of George Rogers Clark in history, the study of the cotton 
industry in geography, and the study of the "Lady of the 
Lake," in literature are examples of topics that will involve 
much more than one recitation period. It necessarily follows 
from the discussion that the work of each recitation period 
should be thoroughly motivated. Some specific purpose, 
preferably leading in the direction of the realization of the 
larger purpose, may dominate a recitation. Care should be 
taken to relate to the discussions that have preceded. Each 
succeeding discussion increases the possibility of variety and 



The Significance of Motivation 89 

intensity of interest of a class in the ultimate goal. The 
desire of the pupil to solve the whole situation, therefore, 
may grow as his knowledge grows, which accounts for the 
increasing enthusiasm that some teachers find in their classes 
from day to day as the topic is considered. 

The enthusiasm of the pupils should not blind the teacher 
to the need of acquainting the pupils with a large field of 
knowledge. Sometimes we hear excellent teachers remark 
that they have spent more time on a topic than they had 
planned because of the enthusiastic work of the children. 
Teachers, themselves, are loath to abandon such topics to 
take up topics the results of which they are not sure they 
can anticipate. Pupils, because of their interest, may not 
want to drop the topic to take up something the possibilities 
of which are unknown. Meeting the conditions of a course 
of study, however, and the need of the child for a variety of 
experiences as well, requires the teacher to pass on to other 
topics. Succeeding topics preferably should be closely re- 
lated to each other, so that a transition rather than an 
abrupt break may prevail. Since the points of contact of 
the children with all phases of human activity are numerous 
and diversified, it is possible, fortunately, for a teacher who 
has the proper training and outlook, the time and the in- 
clination to study the situations, to motivate in a strong, 
vigorous fashion practically everything that she is required 
to teach. A careful study of work assigned, however, should 
be made by the superintendents of the course of study as a 
whole, and by the teachers for their particular work, in order 
that the situation may be presented in the order that will 
furnish the most nearly perfect motivation for all topics 
concerned. 

In the teaching of every subject there is necessity for 
strong motivation including (a) geography. Geography is a 



90 The Project Method m Education 

study of the earth in its relation to man. Geography particu- 
larly is concerned with man in his present environment, and 
the utilization of the resources of the earth by man. It has 
been noted that the child's acquaintance with the earth be- 
gins with his immediate environment. The problem of the 
teacher in the earlier grades is to extend the acquaintance 
of the child with his environment and to assist him in its in- 
terpretation. In the higher grades observational, physical 
and commercial geography are important. There are vary- 
ing degrees of motivation in connection with the topics 
of geography, (a) The teacher may ask the class as to how 
many would like to go to the park. The entire class may 
volunteer because of the change and novelty involved; (b) 
The question may be slightly amplified by an inquiry as to 
how many would like to go to the park to make a study of 
sink holes. The entire class again may volunteer in order 
to satisfy an instinctive curiosity to see a certain thing as 
well as because of the change and novelty involved; (c) The 
teacher may present in an interesting fashion some facts 
concerning sink holes, skilfully arousing in the class a desire 
to see a sink hole. She then may ask how many would like 
to go. The whole class again may volunteer, but in addi- 
tion to the novelty, change, and opportunity to see what is 
presented, there is a curiosity and desire aroused that the 
proposed trip can satisfy; (d) In connection with the child's 
normal activities, he may learn that some one has been 
drowned in a sink hole, or that a sink hole at one of the parks 
is to be converted into a lake, or that the sink holes have 
overflowed, injuring the crops in the adjoining fields. He 
may come to school with the question as to what sink holes 
are and how they are formed. The teacher may enter into 
a discussion concerning them, and in connection with the 
topic may mention the fact that there are numerous sink 



The Significance of Motivation 91 

holes near St. Louis. It will be unnecessary for her to ask 
the question as to how many would like to see a sink hole, 
as the class will ask her if they can go. It is not difficult 
to see, in the four illustrations given, that there is a marked 
increase in the quality of the motivation work from illus- 
tration one to illustration four. 

Some of the children, perhaps, learn that a farmer re- 
ceives only about seven cents a quart for milk from the 
dairy companies, whereas their parents must pay fourteen 
cents a quart. They may come with the question as to why 
there is such a difference in price. A brief discussion of the 
care of the milk and the treatment that it must undergo, the 
expense of transportation and distribution may be made. If 
the children have not had their normal growth curbed" too 
much by artificial restraints, they are sure to ask if there 
is a dairy plant that they can visit, or some one may con- 
tribute the information that there is a dairy plant that the 
class can visit. The pupils may visit the plant and also the 
receiving station for the inbound milk and the outbound 
empty milk cans, and thus satisfy a need that was created 
in the natural environment of the child, nurtured in the 
schoolroom, and as nearly satisfied as possible by actually 
visiting one of the plants under discussion. 

All normal people are interested in the current happen- 
ings of the world. Newspapers, magazines, advertising ma- 
terial, meetings, and observations keep people, including 
children, in touch with current events. There are numerous 
events occurring, the understanding of which involves geo- 
graphic material. The government barge service began be- 
tween St. Louis and New Orleans, in the fall of 1918. What 
were the factors inducing the government to install tins 
service? Is it probable that the service is but the beginning 
of the revival of river traffic? What are the factors favor- 



92 The Project Method in Education 

ing and discouraging such a movement? A series of related 
problems is opened up, the original impulse being given by 
the public interest in the formal opening of the barge serv- 
ice. The papers may spread the news that there is an un- 
precedented concentration of traffic at New York City. The 
question arises as to why there should be such a concen- 
tration when there are numerous other ports to serve the 
country. A consideration of this situation may bring out 
the fact that the Atlantic ports are engaged in a much larger 
business in the aggregate than the Gulf ports, and this leads 
to the question as to whether the relative importance of these 
two groups of ports may be expected to change in the future. 

In connection with the school itself many interests of chil- 
dren can be utilized. If there is a school garden, the knowl- 
edge of the children concerning these products, or if they 
are uninformed, their first hand contact with the garden 
products may be used as a point of departure for a further 
consideration of the importance of the products in the pres- 
ent economic and social life. The materials of which the 
school building is composed, bricks, iron and steel, wood, 
asbestos, tiles, etc., the ventilation of the building, the stor- 
ing of coal for winter, the location of the school, the routes 
taken in going to and from school, the sources of the many 
articles used in the school, leading back to a consideration of 
the raw materials of which they are composed, these and 
many more topics offer themselves to the wide-awake teacher 
as a point of departure for an interesting study of geo- 
graphic materials. 

History should be strongly motivated. The field of his- 
tory in many respects is as comprehensive as the field of 
geography. "History in its amplest meaning includes every 
trace and vestige of everything that man has done or thought 
since first he appeared on the earth." (Robinson, The New 



The Significance of Motivation 93 

History.) Or, "History, in its broadest sense, is every- 
thing that ever happened." (Johnson, The Teaching of His- 
tory.) In our public schools emphasis more and more is 
being placed upon the viewpoint that the history work should 
be related to modern life, to present-day situations. Since 
the present has been evolved from the past, history is de- 
sirable for every one, not so much because of its intrinsic 
value, but because it will help us to understand the present. 
The tendency is to eliminate from our public schools all 
historical material that has no distinct bearing upon the 
present. History thus is becoming more and more a subject 
that is not studied primarily for its own sake, but for the 
sake of the pupils in permitting them to live effectively in 
the present. The more closely the work is related to the 
child's interests and experiences the more readily can moti- 
vation be secured. 

Important holidays may be used as a point of departure. 
The celebration of the fourth of July is an annual occur- 
rence within the experience of practically every child. Why 
do we celebrate on the fourth of July? Why is this day 
called Independence Day? What were the special conditions 
attending the Declaration of Independence? These special 
conditions can be worked out by the children and dramatized. 
Certain children represent the different colonies, and the 
meeting is held with the children reproducing the conditions 
according to their conception of the happenings on that 
day. It is not essential that the exact conditions shall be 
reproduced, but merely that the spirit of the occasion truth- 
fully shall be presented. When the Declaration is adopted, 
heralds are sent forth in various directions to proclaim the 
tidings. One herald meets a rich colonial merchant, who has 
close trade relations with the mother country, and also close 
blood relations. When he hears the news, he scoffs at it, and 



94 The Project Method m Education 

says that the rebels will be hanging on the nearest trees in 
a few days. Another herald meets an industrious, liberty- 
loving farmer, who hears the news with much joy, for he 
has no special ties with the mother country and cannot see 
the need of submitting to a country far across the ocean. 
This brings out the idea that there were two opposed view- 
points concerning the Declaration. From this situation 
arises the problem of whether the colonists were justified 
in adopting the Declaration of Independence, which involves 
a consideration of the chain of events leading up to the Dec- 
laration. In addition to the problem with a backward time 
perspective, there is a problem with a forward time perspec- 
tive. Was it sufficient that the colonists should adopt the 
Declaration, or was it necessary that they should make the 
Declaration good by the use of force? 

How was the Declaration of Independence made good? 
This problem will include a study of the actual military 
strategy, and the diplomatic struggle at the Peace Confer- 
ence. 

The chronological order can be justified only to the ex- 
tent that it psychologically is desirable. The ordinary 
method of procedure is chronological. The pupils study event 
after event, drifting down the stream of time, why, they 
know not, except that it is so. Moving in this blindfolded 
manner, they come face to face with some culminating event. 
How much more purposeful the work could be if the pupils 
were given some situation, the causes of which they felt the 
need of interpreting, or the effects of which they felt the 
need of ascertaining. 

The birthdays of great men may be used to motivate cer- 
tain types of work. The birthday of some great man, as 
Washington, Lincoln, or Roosevelt, may be used as a point 
of departure for making a biographical study. The situ- 



The Significance of Motivation 95 

ations with which the man was related will come out more 
or less in the biographical study. Some particular situ- 
ation, as the battles of the American forces along the Meuse, 
may bring a man, as General Pershing, into prominence, or 
some general situation, as the entire allied battle line, may 
bring some person, as General Foch, into prominence. The 
biography of a famous man, therefore, may furnish a point 
of departure for the study of events, or the study of an event 
may offer a point of departure for the study of the life of 
a man closely associated with the event. 

The political life of the city, state, and nation is rich in 
motivation possibilities. The political campaigns, local, 
state, and national, offer motivation material of a unique 
nature. Here is an opportunity to see, experience and in- 
terpret history in the making. Each candidate is anxious 
to present his qualifications. The records of various can- 
didates are brought out and criticised, thus relating the 
campaign to many problems that have come up for settle- 
ment. Feeling may run at white heat, and the emotional 
as well as the intellectual, and even the physical, activities 
of man may enter into the situation. Harsh things may be 
said during the campaign to be smoothed over at the close. 
An uninformed spectator may think that irreconcilable 
breaches are being made, not realizing that this is America's 
way of settling her problems. Among the topics that may 
arise are the following: how the political parties came to be, 
and their powers; reasons, that have called forth new par- 
ties, or why old parties have gained or lost strength; prob- 
lems still in the process of being settled, each party having 
its particular plan of settlement; party control of the leg- 
islative, executive, and judicial departments ; method of elect- 
ing senators, representatives, and President; qualifications 
required of those elected ; determination of the elected ; when 



96 The Project Method m Education 

and how the successful candidates are inaugurated. Presi- 
dential elections are held every four years, so that it is always 
possible, if the course of study is made sufficiently elastic, 
for every child at some time during his school career to make 
an adapted, detailed study of national politics, extending 
his observations and studies over the period of time actually 
covered by the campaign. It is to be expected that more will 
be accomplished in the eighth than in the fifth grade, but 
while the campaign is on, all children irrespective of age may 
be interested, and in proportion to ability, can interpret the 
passing and related events. 

Local motivation material can be secured not only for 
the motivation of local history, but for the motivation of 
United States and general history, also. Local history fre- 
quently may be studied in relation to museum material, old 
buildings, old landmarks, monuments, and the personal nar- 
ratives of those connected with important events. This work 
becomes highly interesting if properly presented and re- 
lated. All local histories are related to the histories of 
larger areas. The local history work, therefore, not only 
furnishes the necessary motivation material for the study 
of local history, but local history in turn furnishes the 
needed point of departure for the study of a larger area. 
Examples of such local material are found in St. Louis in 
the Jefferson Memorial, the Missouri Biological Garden, the 
Missouri Historical Society, the monument and grave of 
General Sherman, the narrow streets along the river laid 
out by the French, the exact place where St. Louis was 
founded, and the Mill Creek Valley in relation to transpor- 
tation routes. No locality is without its local history, al- 
though some localities are favored more than others. 

Subjects which require considerable mechanizing of activ- 
ties should be motivated. In arithmetic, the emphasis has 



The Significance of Motivation 97 

been placed upon skill in the manipulation of figures. 
Whether the problems were impossible or impracticable from 
the standpoint of actual life was not regarded as of primary 
importance. If the proper skill in the combinations could 
be secured, it was assumed that the problems of life, involv- 
ing mathematical considerations, could be handled without 
difficulty. The viewpoint was pedagogical because the child's 
interests were disregarded on the one hand, and because the 
subordination of the practical and possible on the other 
hand did not secure the motivation necessary for securing, 
economically and assuredly, the desired results. The work 
was based on desirable accomplishment anticipatory on the 
part of the teacher of future needs of the child, instead of 
being based upon real needs of the child. 

The individual and social needs of the child must be ap- 
pealed to in arithmetic just as in other subjects. The 
amount of actual arithmetical operations required for the 
activities of most children is severely limited. For the great 
mass of adults the same general statement holds true. The 
project method suggests the desirability of eliminating prob- 
lems too far removed from actual life, and the emphasizing 
of problems that have a special value to the child, and fur- 
ther value for adults. 

Among the situations that may be used for the arousal of 
problems of personal interest or importance to the child 
may be mentioned personal expenses and income, problems 
connected with games, problems relating to school work, 
problems relating to work out of school, problems relating to 
receipt and disposition of funds and materials from the home. 
Problems of a social nature, which only indirectly affect the 
child, but which are of considerable concern to society in 
general, also may be used, the emphasis on this type of work 
increasing as the child continues to develop. Examples of 



98 The Project Method in Education 

such classes of problems are: problems concerning public 
improvements, problems concerning political questions, as 
taxation, immigration, representation; problems concerning 
general morality, as prohibition, the tobacco habit, etc. ; 
problems concerning the economical welfare, as problems 
relating to various industrial topics, wheat, corn, cattle, 
copper, etc. ; problems relating to posterity, as the probable 
adequacy of wheat production to meet the world's require- 
ments, etc. In fact, there are few topics relating to society 
or to individuals that have not a mathematical side, al- 
though some situations are richer in this respect than others. 
A certain amount of drill work in arithmetic is inevitable. 
The way that the drill work originates, however, is signifi- 
cant from the standpoint of motivation. If drill work is ar- 
bitrarily assigned, the pupil may work from the standpoint 
of faith in the leader, or because of the weight of external 
authority. The motivation concerned is likely to be reduced 
to a minimum. In the working out of a worth-while situ- 
ation, involving considerable mathematical material, how- 
ever, in working toward the realization of the purpose, the 
pupil may find it necessary to work out a mathematical 
problem. He may be unable to make the required combina- 
tions, or he may make the combinations too slowly for prac- 
tical needs. If he is assisted to make the required combina- 
tions, he is learning how. After a few problems involving 
similar combinations have arisen, the pupil may feel the need 
of increased skill in mathematical manipulations, and as a 
result is in the proper mood for drill work in order that 
future similar operations may be solved more quickly. Arith- 
metic, therefore, can be motivated more readily if the arith- 
metical problems are related to situations in which the child 
has an interest, and provided the necessary drill work is pre- 
ceded by work which places the child in the proper attitude 
for drill mastery. 



The Significance of Motivation 99 

The relative ease with which the results of manual dex- 
terity can be measured may lead to a mistaken assumption 
that strong motivation is present vn the doing. In expres- 
sion work a simple motive, as the desire to make some piece 
of furniture as a surprise for mother, may prevail, or a com- 
plex of motives, which includes not only the desire to please 
mother, but the desire to construct an artistic piece of fur- 
niture, and to excel all other members of the class in its con- 
struction, may be involved. In the construction work, the 
motive may be merely to do the work sufficiently well, that 
the course can be continued, or so that the minimum 
requirements will be met. If the activity is not stimulated 
by whole-hearted activity, some writers would state that the 
child is not driven forward to accomplishment by motives, 
but by incentives. 

That these two terms are used, however, to denote varying 
degrees of the same thing is evident if a careful examination 
of the uses of the two terms is made. 

In manual training it is decidedly unpedagogical to be- 
gin with a consideration of tools, their care and use, how 
to plane a board, etc. Some simple constructive work in 
which the child has an interest should be begun and in con- 
nection with the unit of work being attempted, the use of 
tools will come up. Insofar as practice is required in the 
use of the tool, this can be done after the child has need for 
the use of the tool. From the artistic standpoint, it may be 
preferable to prevent the child from making mistakes in his 
constructive work, but from the educational standpoint, 
the attempt to do, ending in not altogether satisfactory re- 
sults, will bring vividly before the child the need of master- 
ing the tool, and therefore will place him in an attitude that 
may mean whole-hearted work in tool mastery. 

In penmanship, pupils commonly are given forms to imi- 
tate. These forms may not be letters or words or sentences, 



100 The Project Method m Education 

but merely some element that enters into writing, as ovals, 
the u-exercise, the m-exercise, etc. Such imitation of the 
nature of drill work is not harmful in and of itself. If the 
pupil is assigned this work with the general statement that 
it will teach him to write, however, the motivation involved 
is likely to be of an inferior order. If the pupil sees others 
expressing themselves by means of symbols, and if he wishes 
to express a certain idea in writing, but cannot do so, con- 
ditions are favorable for the teaching of penmanship. Dur- 
ing the World War a large number of men was called into 
service. Many of these men came from districts where few 
could read or write. In numerous instances, friends of the 
soldiers, especially the young ladies, became very much in- 
terested in learning how to read and write. In the evening 
schools such people learned rapidly because of the whole- 
hearted, purposeful activity. If the conditions are analyzed 
and the reasons for certain exercises or for certain devices 
are understood by the child, imitation and drill work may be 
highly profitable. The actual external organization of ma- 
terial may be the same in either case, but the closeness of 
relationship of the pupil to the material is different because 
in the one case the pupil acts blindly, while in the other case 
he acts intelligently. 

A situation may he motivated irrespective of the different 
subjects. To the extent that it is found practicable to 
break down the barriers artificially created amongst the sub- 
jects and to organize the work about situations, since the 
situation is more nearly in accord with the normal experi- 
ences of life, the opportunities for motivating are con- 
siderably increased over the subject matter organization. 
To the extent that subjects are permitted to "cooperate" 
with each other, a similar organization may occur in any 
subject, although the question of relative emphasis may 



The Significance of Motivation 101 

enter in to such an extent as to detract from the educative 
value of the situation. In the regular work of the school 
as a whole in contrast to classes, an opportunity for the in- 
terpretation of such situations frequently is afforded. 

The primary responsibility of motivating the work be- 
longs to the teacher. There are two aspects to the teaching 
process which should be kept in mind, the child and the cur- 
riculum. It always is amusing to hear a teacher make the 
statement that her pupils "did all of the work by them- 
selves." If this is the truth, then why doesn't the poor 
teacher succeed as well as the good teacher? The differ- 
ence lies largely in the extent to which the teacher properly 
places the material about the child and through wise direc- 
tion stimulates the child to analyse the situations. In bring- 
ing the child into contact with the material, the teacher's 
golden opportunity is found in motivation. 

Pupils gradually should learn to motivate their own work. 
If the guiding hand of the teacher could be present to the 
pupil throughout life, the need for self-motivation of ma- 
terial would not be so urgent. In America particularly 
where there is a tendency to insist on equality of opportu- 
nity, and upon the privilege of each individual to develop 
in his own way, compatible with the interests of society in 
general, the need for self-direction and self-motivation of 
work is apparent. 

Some day the pupil must pass into the great competitive 
field of industry, where he must learn to give and take. The 
tasks frequently will be disagreeable, and sustained effort 
will be necessary. The directing hand of the teacher will 
not be with him. He must motivate his own work, or lessen 
his chances of success and decrease the sum total of happi- 
ness that comes from the whole-hearted living as expressed 
by the poet, Robert Louis Stevenson : "Under the wide starry 



102 The Project Method in Education 

sky, There dig the grave and let me lie ; Gladly did I live and 
gladly die, And I lay me down with a will." The adult 
fired with worthy purposes will continue to secure and to 
nurture acquired interests of the desirable sort. 

If it is desirable that an adult shall have learned the secret 
of self-motivating desirable activities, the school as a special 
agent of society should accept this responsibility. The 
teacher, therefore, should not become discouraged if it seems 
necessary to place before the child materials well within 
his comprehension, but materials to which he cannot by direct 
interests give a whole-hearted, enthusiastic response. Such 
material, however, always should have indirect values which 
the child can understand. The teacher may leave the child 
to find the points of contact in the materials which may be 
used as a basis for the interpretation of the whole situation. 
The work in all respects may be self-directed so far as the 
relationship to the material is concerned. Finally the 
teacher may place the responsibility upon the pupil of secur- 
ing the material which he interprets. When the pupil has 
become both a teacher and a pupil to himself, then the dual 
aspect of teacher and pupil is incorporated in the same 
human being, then it may be said that the child is prepared 
to enter into life's activities with the probabilities of success 
in his favor. 

The desire and ability to motivate should be one of the 
heritages of the school. A certain amount of subject matter 
should be mastered by the child in such a way that it can 
be used, and certain attitudes and skills should be set up 
which will assist in the meeting of problems as they arise. 
With motivation at a low ebb, however, it cannot be ex- 
pected that the pupil will realize the most possible out of 
life, for "Where your heart is, there will your treasures be 
also," and if the pupil does not enter into his work whole- 



The Significance of Motivation 103 

heartedly, to the extent that there is opposition of interests, 
his efforts will be divided, and progress will be effected much 
less readily. The pupil should cultivate an attitude of will- 
ingness to do with respect to those tasks that, irrespective 
of personal feelings, it seems desirable to perform, and suffi- 
cient training in self-motivation should have been given, so 
that in the most disagreeable of situations the pupil can find 
some helpful way of motivating. 

Motivation is to be regarded as a desirable aspect of life, 
and not merely a device for schoolroom work. The school 
is an artificial institution of society, especially established 
for the purpose of supplementing all other institutions in 
preparing the children for a desirable participation in mod- 
ern social and economic life. The school considers the es- 
sentials of modern life that are not secured through other 
institutions, or inadequately are secured, and seeks to em- 
phasize these essentials. Special duties also are assigned 
the schools, which other institutions attempt to supplement. 
If motivation is desirable in the schoolroom, therefore, it 
also is desirable in every activity in which a human being 
engages. Whether a school project or some other type of 
life project is being considered, the fullness of living will be 
more nearly approximated if the person concerned has 
learned to motivate to the utmost. 



Problems 

1. What are the teacher's responsibilities in a school- 
room where the project method ideally is being utilized? 

2. Are the only essential factors in the education of the 
child, the child on the one hand and the curriculum on the 
other hand? 



104 The Project Method m Education 

S. Will there be any problems of discipline in a school 
with ideal projects? 

4. Is the distinction commonly made between an incen- 
tive and motivation desirable? Are there varying qualities 
of motivation? Is it possible to have an intellectualized 
activity without some quality of motivation being involved? 

5. What are the relative values of an initial interest, a 
continued interest, and a concluding interest in a situation? 

6. How would the motivation of a recitation differ in or- 
ganization from the motivation of a situation involving 
several recitations? 

7. How can a teacher determine the right time to shift 
the emphasis from a situation on which the class has been 
working for some time, to a related situation? 

8. Should the teacher permit the pupils to exhaust their 
interests in a few situations, or should she attempt to ac- 
quaint the pupils with a large field of knowledge, at the ex- 
pense of intensive treatment? 

9. What subject offers the best opportunities for a 
strong motivation of materials? Justify your decision. 

10. Which should exert the stronger control, the choice 
of material because of the possibilities of strongly motivat- 
ing it, or the motivation of material, because certain material 
is regarded as necessary? What should be the viewpoint of 
education in the light of possibilities of motivation? What 
should be the viewpoint of education in the light of subject 
matter regarded as necessary? Are these two viewpoints 
irreconcilable? 

11. Is drill work other than on the basis of need ever 
justifiable? 

12. Indicate a situation which you believe readily could 
be motivated for a child of a certain grade. Indicate a 
situation which you believe could not be readily motivated. 



The Significance of Motivation 105 

13. Which type of activity can be motivated the more 
readily, (a) the type that results in concrete objective ac- 
complishment, or (b) the type that results in a mere acqui- 
sition of intellectual knowledge? 

14. How may the cooperation of various subjects aid 
in motivating? Give an illustration. 

15. Give an illustration of a situation in which the 
teacher assumes a direct responsibility for the motivation 
of the work. In which the pupil motivates his own work. 

16. Indicate concretely how the school, through moti- 
vation, may assist an individual to realize the fullness of 
life. 



CHAPTER VI 



TEACHING BY PROJECTS 



The most comprehensive project that amy individual can 
have is the "project of life." Beginning with the instinctive 
reactions to the environment, the individual gradually be- 
comes conscious of his surroundings. This consciousness 
increases from day to day as the child's experiences are mul- 
tiplied. The various observations are correlated, and life's 
experiences become unified as a part of the conscious ex- 
istence of the individual. Life's project differs in quality 
amongst various individuals, one person preferring experi- 
ences of doubtful social value, another person planning 
his life according to the highest social ideals. Life's project 
differs in intensity. The late ex-President Theodore Roose- 
velt lived in sixty-one years, from the standpoint of the 
comprehensiveness of his life's project, several times the life 
of an ordinary man, reaching the same age. Life's project 
differs in duration. Many children have their project of 
life cut short, so, far as this world is concerned, at the time 
when the project seemingly has just begun to develop. Other 
people are cut down when seemingly their diversified experi- 
ences have given them numerous points of departure for 
enriching their project of life at an accelerated rate. Some 
few people reach a ripe old age when the maximum growth 
of the project of life long since has been passed, and when 
further growth is reduced to a minimum. Whether old, or 
mature, or young, while the project of life seems far from 

106 



Teaching by Projects 107 

complete, every one must pass on. It is this incompleteness 
of the project of life that helps to raise in the minds of 
many the hope of the continuation of a conscious life be- 
yond death, by means of which the project can be carried 
more nearly to completion. 

AU social endeavor should be in the direction of enabling 
and mducmg the individual to develop desirably his project 
of life. The ancient Greeks had a saying that life is like a 
bird that flies in at the door and out at the window. We 
know what is happening in the flight between the door and 
the window, but we do not know what happened just beyond 
the door, or what will happen just beyond the window. 
That part of the project of life of particular concern to a 
person is that which relates to the span of this life. If an in- 
dividual specializes too narrowly, his project tends to be- 
come one-sided, and his general development is retarded. On 
the other hand, some aspect of the project should be mas- 
tered in such a way that a particular contribution can be 
made to the activities of the world. Perhaps the ideal of a 
project of life that involves a little knowledge of everything, 
and considerable knowledge about one thing, is to be com- 
mended. Not only material, but man himself, is influential in 
directing the developing project of his fellowman. It fol- 
lows, therefore, that every individual has the dual responsi- 
bility of developing his own project of life desirably, and 
also the opportunity of stimulating others to do likewise. 

The project of life may be resolved into numerous sub- 
units of activity called projects. While the project of life 
is the big comprehensive unit of activity of chief concern to 
all who are "in the flesh," a practical consideration of this 
subject requires an analysis and breaking up of the project 
of life into numerous, purposeful, sub-units, called projects. 
The school work necessarily centers about these projects, 



108 The Project Method m Education 

not as ultimate ends in and of themselves, but as a means of 
permitting the individual to develop, as a human being seek- 
ing to realize the purposes of existence. The immediate ef- 
fort of the class may center about a particular project, 
and about a particular aspect of a project, but the teacher 
always should have the setting of the project in the larger 
field in mind. A unit of activity looking toward definite, 
purposeful accomplishment is a project. In so far as a proj- 
ect is used in relation to the interpretation of another 
project, it ceases to be a project, and becomes instead a 
project-step of the more comprehensive project. An im- 
proper idea therefore is secured if one project is regarded as 
being composed of minor projects. Projects are distinct 
because the viewpoint differs, although the same detailed 
material in part may enter into each project. 

Projects may be classified as (a) selfish, (b) social, or (c) 
selfish-social. According to this classification, the purpose 
involved in the solution of the project is fundamental. The 
problem of securing some ripe apples from an apple or- 
chard may arise. Irrespective of the purpose, the respective 
activities may be the same. Some particular orchard must 
be selected and some particular tree of the orchard. The 
fruit must be secured in some particular fashion. The 
fruit must be reached in some manner. A search for a pole 
may result in failure, a search for a stick to throw at the 
fruit may be unsuccessful, shaking the tree may bring no 
results, and attempts to climb the tree, with the shoes on, 
may end in discouragement. At last the shoes may be re- 
moved, and the tree may be climbed without difficulty. If 
the person wishes the ripe fruit simply to satisfy his own 
personal appetite, the project may be regarded as selfish, 
if he wishes the ripe fruit without thought of personal re- 
ward, in order that he may give it to his teacher pjr jnother, 



Teaching by Projects 109 

the project may be regarded as social, if he wishes the ripe 
fruit in order that he and a group of his playmates to- 
gether may satisfy their appetites for apples, the project 
may be classified as selfish-social. Each type of purpose 
has its justification educationally and consciously should 
be considered in schoolroom practices. 

Projects may be classified as (a) vocational, and (b) 
avocational. Many people must engage in activities that 
economically are fundamental. Whether these people di- 
rectly are engaged in securing a livelihood from mother 
earth, or serve some special needs of people so engaged, a 
fundamental requirement of society is met, and through the 
compensation secured, the varying needs of the individual 
are satisfied. Numerous projects, demanding a solution, 
come up in the course of one's ordinary activities relating 
to a vocation. There are numerous points of contact, which 
the individual has with his social and physical environment, 
outside of his vocational activities, which may be economic, 
social, or religious. In the well-balanced life, each group of 
projects is represented. 

There are projects (a) relating to occupational activi- 
ties, (6) relating to physical activities, (c) relating to citi- 
zenship activities, (d) relating to leisure activities, and (e) 
relating to religious activities. The occupational activities 
of life furnish man the materials necessary for the physical 
man, and also afford the basis for the development of the 
higher life. The physical activities, if rightly engaged in, 
help a man to maintain himself in good physical condition 
so that the inner man can work and play with a minimum of 
friction with the physical domicile. The citizenship activi- 
ties help man to meet his obligations as a member of a social 
group by the various active measures that he fathers, or 
opposes, looking toward changes in some phase of social 



110 The Project Method m Education 

organization. The leisure activities afford man a respite 
from the trying activities of his work, and if the work is not 
particularly pleasing, permit man during his leisure hours 
to engage in those types of activities that more nearly meet 
his needs. The religious activities help man to adopt a 
philosophy of life that is in accord with his understanding 
and yearnings. 

Specialization of labor, in many instances, is narrowing. 
In earlier times, when the household was more nearly self- 
sufficing than under present conditions, the projects related 
to so many lines of activity that a certain breadth of view 
inevitably was secured. The requirements of peoples have 
become so numerous, so exacting, and so complicated, that 
a subdivision of work inevitably has been emphasized. Men, 
more and more, are selecting a vocation, and are devoting 
their working hours to a consideration of projects which 
will make them more proficient and successful in their re- 
stricted field of work, or which will enable them to accom- 
plish more economically the tasks set for them in their vo- 
cations. Men who make no selection of a life vocation find 
their occupational projects, in general, confined to a very 
low plane. Specialization leads to a dependence of man 
upon man, but may lead also to a lack of appreciation of the 
work of others, and also of social obligations. The aggre- 
gate of accomplishment for the social group as a whole may 
be greater, but the individuals may become dwarfed, ex- 
tremely provincial, and unsocial. 

Leisure occupations have become increasingly important. 
With the oncoming of modern conditions, a serious need of 
training, not only for a vocation, but for participation in 
leisure occupations as well, has arisen, to offset the disad- 
vantages of specialization. Before man understood how 
to make the energy of nature serve him effectively, a long 



Teaching by Projects 111 

working day was necessary, and the greater part of the 
working hours was devoted to the securing of the necessi- 
ties of life. Prof. Fairgrieve has said : "It may be said that 
in its widest sense on its material side history is the story 
of man's increasing ability to control energy." (Fairgrieve, 
James. Geography and World Power, p. 3.) So many 
inventions, enabling man to do his work with less energy, to 
use more energy, and to waste less energy, have been per- 
fected that, in spite of increasing needs and wants, the 
amount of time actually necessary to secure the necessities 
has been reduced materially. In many instances a twelve- 
hour day has given place to an eight-hour day. This de- 
crease in working hours, with prospects of a still further de- 
crease, permits man to engage in leisure occupations and 
thus to broaden his views through the increased points of 
contact that he has with his environment. While there is a 
tendency, therefore, for the projects of man to be restricted 
to a limited field of human knowledge, so far as modern in- 
dustry is concerned, the disadvantages of this scheme of or- 
ganization are in large part overcome or at least minimized 
by the shortening of working hours and the opportunity 
that is afforded of selecting those projects, outside of work- 
ing hours, which best satisfy the individual needs, whether 
on the work or on the play level. 

Leisure hours may be used properly or improperly. 
Numerous leisure activities are open to man, some of which 
may waste rather than conserve his energies, some of which 
may be inimical to his health, or detrimental to the best in- 
terests of society. It is the duty of society, in general, there- 
fore, and particularly of the school which has been established 
as an institution to serve definite purposes, that the indi- 
vidual shall be trained not only for a vocation, and not only 
for avocations, but that the attitudes resulting from this 



112 The Project Method in Education 

training shall be of such a nature that both his vocations 
and avocations are the best for the individual in particular, 
and for society in general. 

Mr. B. may be a man who spends a certain number of 
hours each working day engaged in a painstaking, energetic, 
industrious consideration of his vocation. For relaxation 
he may visit the golf links, the tennis courts, or engage in 
some other form of harmless physical activity. He may 
attend church and the high quality performances given at 
the opera houses. He may read the newspaper, and spend 
some part of each day in conversation with the different mem- 
bers of the family. He becomes interested in various as- 
pects of social welfare work, and exerts his influence in the 
direction of improving conditions. He takes his family oc- 
casionally to some resort, or to visit with friends and rela- 
tives. In every situation in which he is placed, whether work 
or play, he enters with enthusiasm into the activities. His 
whole life is well ordered and centred about health-giving, 
desirable activities. 

Mr. C. may be just as earnest faithfully in performing his 
duties pertaining to his vocation. When his working hours 
are over, however, he may patronize low-class dance halls, 
poolroom, and saloons. He may associate with lewd women, 
attend shows of doubtful character, and patronize gambling 
dens. He may be a veritable grouch at home, and may shun 
all opportunities of engaging in social service. Each man 
has his own class of projects with which to entertain and 
instruct himself during his leisure hours. Mr. B., however, 
has learned the secret of a happy and useful existence, while 
Mr. C. selects projects that are harmful to him and the 
social group. 

The school should give trainimg in all types of desirable 
activities not otherwise provided for. The school would be 



•Teaching by Projects 113 

shirking its duty if it neglected to consider either vocational 
or leisure projects. It is essential that children shall be 
given the requisite knowledge and attitudes that will per- 
sist in the after-school days in functioning in the life of the 
child so that he will continue to grow in the direction of 
becoming more and more proficient in industrial work, so 
that he will select harmless forms of recreation, and so that 
he will be a positive social force in society. The knowledge 
and requisite attitudes cannot be secured merely by getting 
the child to memorize what he ought to know and by telling 
the child what he ought to do and what he ought not to do, 
but by getting the child to adopt projects as his own, the 
consideration of which will cause him to adopt the proper 
viewpoints and to secure the needed knowledge. 

Professor William H. Kilpatrick recognizes four classes 
of projects. "Let us consider the classification of the dif- 
ferent types of projects: Type 1, where the purpose is to 
embody some idea or plan in external form, as building a 
boat, writing a letter, presenting a play ; type 2, where the 
purpose is to enjoy some (esthetic) experiences, as listen- 
ing to a story, hearing a symphony, appreciating a pic- 
ture; type 3, where the purpose is to straighten out some 
intellectual difficulty, to solve some problem, as to find out 
whether or not dew falls, to ascertain how New York out- 
grew Philadelphia ; type 4, where the purpose is to obtain 
some item or degree of skill or knowledge, as learning to 
write grade 14 on the Thorndike Scale, learning the irregu- 
lar verbs in French. It is at once evident that these group- 
ings more or less overlap and that one type may be used as 
means to another as end. It may be of interest to note 
that with these definitions the project method logically in- 
cludes the problem method as a special case. The value of 
such a classification as that here given seems to me to lie 



114 The Project Method in Education 

in the light it should throw on the kind of projects teachers 
may expect and on the procedure that normally prevails 
in the several types. For type 1 the following steps have 
been suggested: purposing, planning, executing and judg- 
ing. It is in accord with the general theory here advocated 
that the child, as far as possible, takes each step himself. 
Total failure, however, may hurt more than assistance. The 
opposed dangers seem to be on the one hand that the child 
may not come out master of the process, on the other that 
he may waste time. The teacher must steer the child through 
these narrows, taking care meanwhile to avoid the other 
dangers previously discussed. The function of the purpose 
and the place of thinking in the process need but be men- 
tioned. Attention may be called to the fourth step, that the 
child as he grows older may increasingly judge the result in 
terms of the aim and with increasing care and success draw 
from the process its lessons for the future. 

"Type £, enjoying an esthetic experience may seem to 
some hardly to belong in the list of projects. But the fac- 
tor of purpose undoubtedly guides the process and — I must 
think — influences the growth of appreciation. I have, how- 
ever, as yet no definite procedure steps to point out. 

"Type 3, that of the problem is of all the best known, 
owing to the work of Professors Dewey and McMurry. The 
steps that have been used are those of the Dewey analysis 
of thought. This type lends itself, next to type 4, best of 
all to our ordinary schoolroom work. For this reason I 
have myself feared its over-emphasis. Our schools — at least 
in my judgment — do emphatically need a great increase in 
the social activity possible in type 1. Type 4, where the 
purpose has to do with specific items of knowledge or skill, 
would seem to call for the same steps as type 1, purposing, 
planning, executing, and judging. Only here the planning 



Teaching by Projects 115 

had perhaps best come from the psychologist. In this type 
also there is danger of over-emphasis. Some teachers, in- 
deed, may not closely discriminate between drill as a proj- 
ect and a drill as a set task, although the results will be 
markedly different." (Kilpatrick, William H. The Project 
Method, Teachers' College Record, Sept. 1918, Vol. XIX, 
319-336.) 

Projects may be classified according to the particular 
part of man's nature that is called conspicuously into activ- 
ity. The following types of projects may be recognized: 

(a) the manual project, • 

learning to do (skill), 

learning to solve (interpretation of a situation) ; 

(b) the mental project (not involving manual activity), 
imagery taking the place of concrete, objective means 
and ends, 

projects of information, 
projects of interpretation; 

(c) The emotional or aesthetic project in which the de- 
sirable reaction is appreciation or desirable attitudes, 

simple, 

disconnected, 

intellectualized. 

(a) The project of manual activity involves projects 
that teach the child (a) how to do. The prominent thing 
in the project of manual activity is the use of the muscles 
and machinery in producing effects. The boy on the farm 
learns how to chop wood, to milk the cows, to feed and 
water the stock, to plow, to cultivate, to harvest, to make 
repairs, etc. During his spare time he runs up and down 
the hills, getting acquainted with nature. The girl upon 
the farm learns how to cook, to sew, to patch, to separate 



116 * The Project Method m Education 

the milk, to wash, and how to do a thousand and one other 
tasks about the house. Farm life particularly is well 
adapted to projects of physical activity, as the essence of 
farming is the proper handling of material things. The op- 
portunities of the city child are not so great, and the types 
of projects of physical activity will vary much more among 
individuals than on the farm. The city boy or girl may 
learn how to perform various duties in the home. To some 
extent the children may engage in physical activities in con- 
nection with various industries, and various trips, involving 
considerable physical activity, may be taken, but the nature 
of city life precludes the possibility of children, in general, 
learning how to do. School projects, involving the learn- 
ing how to do, therefore, should be incorporated in the regu- 
lar course of study in cities to a much greater extent than 
in rural districts. 

The projects of manual activity involve projects which 
teach the child (&') how to solve problems. On the farm 
numerous problems, requiring considerable thinking, may 
arise. If a gully develops on the hillside, the problem arises 
of preventing further wash and of reclaiming the gullied 
area. If undesirable birds are numerous, the problem of 
protecting fruits and grains must be met. If the fruit trees 
are being ruined by rabbits, if the chinch bugs are destroy- 
ing the wheat, if the sun is burning the corn, and if the dan- 
delions are taking the pasture, how can these problems be 
met? In the city opportunities are more limited, but even 
here the boy may consider how he can make a kite that will 
fly, how he can make a boat that will float, and how he can 
have a small home garden. 

The manual projects involve projects which teach the 
child (c') how to meet complex situations. The boys of 
the St. Louis Industrial School at Belief ountaine Farm (a 



Teaching by Projects 117 

school for wayward boys), may plan a garden. They maj 
discuss the kinds and amounts of varieties of seeds to plant, 
the preparing of the ground, planting, cultivating, and 
gathering the crop. They may engage in the various forms 
of physical activity required to care for the garden. Their 
interest in the garden may be due to their desire to furnish 
their cottage with fresh vegetables, or to dispose of the 
products for a compensation, or their interest may be due 
to their inherent love for nature. Such a project situation 
is a complex of activities, including the securing of infor- 
mation, the learning to do, and the meeting of problems. 

(b) Mental projects not Involving manual activity may 
be informational or problematical. A mental project is a 
project the interpretation of which involves an absence or 
at least an incidental amount of manual activity, with the 
dominant emphasis on the use of the intellect. The mental 
project may involve questions, exercises, problems, or com- 
plex situations. Projects, which primarily are informa- 
tional, include those facts which dominantly involve memory 
work. Learning the answers to simple questions and mem- 
orizing choice selections are in this class. Much of the 
teaching of the lower grades particularly involves a liberal 
use of the mental project of information. Not only are 
memory mental impressions received as a result of contact 
with the environment and symbols, but they also are given 
out under certain conditions. In daily life we continually 
are asking questions and seeking information from some 
one else. The giving of information in and of itself may 
not involve development, but frequently the reaction involved 
revives ideas and reinforces the breadth of view of the in- 
dividual. 

Mental problem-projects do not involve the objective 
reality of manual problem-projects, but subjectively are 



118 The Project Method in Education 

just as real. The child comes into contact with his physical 
and social environment and gradually comes to grasp more 
and more the idea of varying relationships and their signifi- 
cance. His ability to build up in his imagination a picture 
of events and situations which he has not seen gradually 
grows. He mentally learns to make combinations and to 
retain them or reject them according to whether they stand 
the tests which he applies. Without the aid of concrete ma- 
terial he develops an ability to relate, to compare, to analyze, 
to synthesize, to reason. With young children, particularly, 
the mental problem-project more readily can be handled if 
its solution has a bearing on the working out of some physi- 
cal project, or if some kind of desirable recognition is given 
to the child as a result of his having mastered the problem. 
As the child becomes more mature, in fact, the mental prob- 
lem-project more and more will be a logical predecessor of 
the physical problem-project. If the farmer boy makes 
some preliminary plans for a garden, and meets the varying 
situations as they arise with the help of his teacher, he is 
working out a physical project situation. If the boy makes 
a comprehensive study of all aspects of the garden, as he 
images it, from one end of the season to the other, and plans 
systematically every step in advance, he has solved a mental 
project situation, and the physical project that follows 
largely is significant as a test of the accuracy of his con- 
clusions. 

An architect may draw up plans which he sells to a com- 
pany. The" mental problem-project that he has worked out 
may not result in his personal construction of the building, 
or perhaps even in his supervision of the construction. The 
same kind of accurate imagery, however, that has enabled 
him to construct the plan, enables him to> see the building 
completed, and so far as he himself is concerned this mental 



Teaching by Projects 119 

picture takes the place of the actual testing by the child, 
whose experiences are more limited. He may solve the prob- 
lem because of the pleasure that he derives, or, as is more 
probably the case, because of the compensation that he 
hopes to receive. While for the child it is desirable that the 
conclusions of mental problems shall be tested with objec- 
tive data, gradually imagery becomes more and more trust- 
worthy and the need of an objective test lessens. It is im- 
practicable, moreover, to test many conclusions objectively. 
Many mental projects involve an appreciation of social in- 
stitutions, past and present, or an appreciation of situations 
that involve many, perhaps millions, of people. Among 
those of current interest may be noted the following: Is a 
league of nations, under present conditions, practicable? 
Has the World War increased or decreased nationalism? 
Is Prohibition desirable? Is a democracy preferable to an 
autocracy? How should the problem of the freedom of the 
seas be disposed of? Was it wise that the President went to 
Europe or should he have stayed in the United States ? The 
mind not only can project itself elsewhere in place, but also 
in time. Problems of the past, consequently, may be consid- 
ered as well as problems of the present. As illustrations of 
such problems the following may be noted: How did the 
New World come to be discovered? What influence did the 
Andes Mountains have on the exploitation of South America 
by the Spaniards ? At the beginning of the last French and 
Indian War, which country, Great Britain or France, had 
the better claim to the Mississippi Basin? What was the 
real cause of the Civil War ? Were the pioneers of Kentucky 
and Tennessee justified in threatening to withdraw from 
the Union if an open gateway to the ocean by way of the 
Mississippi River were not maintained? A long list of prob- 
lems and situations primarily involving mental activity 



120 The Project Method m Education 

might be mentioned. It is necessary to hold in mind that 
these problems are not project-problems until they have been 
accepted for solution by the individual. The mere listing of 
problems and their assignment may be insufficient. There is 
no particular inherent educative value in a list of problems. 
The viewpoint of the teacher is to endeavor to get the pupils 
to want to solve a problem, not under compulsion of external 
authority, but under the compulsion of some individual or 
social, personal need that will be satisfied. 

(c) Emotional projects may be grouped as (a) harmo- 
nious, (b) disconnected (interrupted), and (c) intellectual- 
ized. The emotional or aesthetic projects are much more 
elusive than either the physical or mental group. These 
projects have their characteristic representation in music, 
literature, and art. Harmonious projects involve those 
which have a simple reaction on the part of the person, be- 
cause of the unity of impression made. The arrangement 
of the parts of a picture, of a piece of music, or of a com- 
position in literature is just what one would expect. In- 
terrupted projects are similar to the harmonious projects 
except that the even movement, or impression, unexpectedly 
is interrupted. In music, for example, a selection may be 
proceeding smoothly, but suddenly may be interrupted to 
represent the hoof beats of a galloping horse, the breaking 
of an ice dam, the breaking out of a battle, etc. In litera- 
ture some unusual situation may present itself in the com- 
position. In art, the whole statue may harmonize, with 
some special exception, as a statue of peace, for example, 
with a sword in the hand. If a child appreciates the har- 
monious and disconnected projects he is said to have an 
artistic nature. It seems to be well established that emo- 
tional projects can be mastered much more readily by some 
children than others, and that many children can see the 



Teaching by Projects 121 

project involved without being able to interpret it. The 
intellectualized emotional project may resolve itself into a 
problem-project. Some occasions may excite an instinctive 
response from the individual in such a way that he adapts 
himself sympathetically. In many instances, however, a sit- 
uation may arise that requires considerable thought in its 
artistic expression. The broader the experience of the in- 
dividual, the greater the extent to which discrimination may 
enter in. If it is desired to compose a piece of music, to 
erect a statue, or to write an article that properly will ex- 
press the participation of the United States in the World 
War, there are numerous facts and relationships that must 
be given careful consideration by the authors, artists, and 
musicians. Not only must the one responsible for the cre- 
ation assemble, discriminate, and judge, but others who seek 
to appreciate the creation should consider it in a similar 
manner. 

The relative emphasis placed on these groups of types will 
vary. The various groups of projects mentioned, physical, 
mental, and aesthetic, should be used in the development of 
every child. The extent of use will be influenced by such 
factors as (a) the out-of-school environment and activities, 
(b) the abilities of the child, (c) the state of development, 
(d) the time available, and (e) relative values. With in- 
creasing maturity and development, the relative emphasis 
will shift more and more from manual projects involving 
"learning to do" and from mental projects involving "giving 
and receiving facts" to manual, mental, and aesthetic proj- 
ect-problems and complex-project situations. A teacher 
needlessly is restricting herself to adopt exclusively one class- 
ification of projects. Different classifications, from varying 
viewpoints, are helpful in pointing out the variety of proj- 
ects that may be used and the particular ends that may 



122 The Project Method m Education 

be served. Projects, in every case, should be selected with 
the view of improving the student, both as an individual and 
as a social being. 

Problems 

1. Is it consistent to regard a comprehensive project as 
including other less comprehensive projects? 

2. Which term is preferable to denote the concept involv- 
ing all of life's intellectualized activities, the "super- 
project" or the "project of life"? 

3. Devise some classification of projects not mentioned in 
the chapter. 

4. Indicate the classification that seems most useful, and 
explain your preference. 

5. Distinguish between (a) question, (b) exercise, (c) 
problem, and (d) complex situation (complex). 

6. Evaluate the social significance of (a) manual projects, 
(b) mental projects not involving manual activity, and 

(c) aesthetic projects. 

7. What advantage, if any, is gained through a classifica- 
tion of projects? 



CHAPTER VII 



LEARNING BY PROJECTS 



The pupil's viewpoint of his own project is different from. 
the viewpoint of the teacher. The teacher's project is con- 
cerned with the economical development of the child. She 
has in mind the whole cycle of development proceeding from 
the child's experiences to an interpretation of related mate- 
rial, back to the child's world enriched because of the project 
cycle that has been completed. The chdd is not regarding 
his development from the pedagogical standpoint. He is 
interested primarily in meeting his needs as they arise. He 
is not concerned particularly with his past experiences ex- 
cept insofar as they help him to meet the present needs, and 
he is not bothering himself very much about the use to which 
the results of his activities may be put in interpreting other 
situations, or the extent to which his own personal world will 
be enlarged as a result of certain activities. His interests 
lie largely in the direction of attempting to satisfy his needs 
and wants. 

The efforts of the child are concentrated on that partic- 
ular part of the project requiring vigorous action. From 
the teacher's standpoint, as indicated in the preceding chap- 
ter, there are various types of projects each of considerable 
significance in the life of the child. The teacher tends to 
place the emphasis on the project as a completed cycle of 
development and therefore thinks in terms of question-proj- 
ects, exercise-projects, problem-projects, and complex- 

123 



1£4 The Project Method in Education 

projects. The pupil, interested primarily in satisfying his 
mental difficulties as they arise, is inclined to think in terms 
of project-questions, project-exercises, project-problems, 
and project-complex-situations. The emphasis is shifted 
from the project as a whole to a particular part of the 
project, although the pupil, to be sure, to the extent that 
he relates himself wisely to the project, is utilizing his per- 
sonal world as a point of departure, and also holds before 
himself an ideal of the goal which he hopes to reach as a 
result of his efforts. The realized ideal incorporated into 
his experiences is the enlarged self that comes from the new 
experiences. The focus of his attack, however, is on the ob- 
stacle, mental, aesthetic, or physical, that he wishes to 
master. 

A project-question involves a mental difficulty that can be 
satisfied by means of a simple reaction. A project-question 
must be a question challenging the abilities of the child. A 
teacher may ask a child numerous questions, significant in and 
of themselves ; questions, however, which are of little value 
to the child, because they have not arisen in response to his 
real, inherent needs, but have been imposed upon him by an- 
other. Too frequently the questions of a teacher before a 
class are of this character. The teacher has in mind an 
objective organization of material which she believes the 
child should master, and organizes her questions accord- 
ingly. If the child were being formed from a mass of plastic 
day, such a method of procedure would be excellent, but the 
self-activity of the child suggests a better way. If the sig- 
nificant factor in development is an inherent mental difficulty 
on the part of the child, the teacher's questions may or may 
not be pertinent. How many times has a teacher asked a 
question, the peculiar response to which was a distinct sur- 
prise or shock. Perhaps the question, not at all in line with 



Learning by Projects 125 

the way the child was thinking, came to the child with as 
great a shock. 

Self-analysis will help a teacher to get the correct view- 
point. If a teacher is engaged in studying wisely, she does 
not repeat over and over again the parts with which she is 
thoroughly acquainted, but dwells on the particular part 
of the unit of study which offers her some difficulties. She 
assumes, within limits, that she knows when she knows, and 
knows when she knows not. What is the characteristic situ- 
ation when this same teacher confronts a class? She takes 
nothing for granted, but attempts to cover the lesson with a 
series of questions. Too much of the period frequently is 
taken up with a mere examination of what the pupil has 
done. Examinations are not to be disregarded, but if they 
can be conducted incidentally to real development, the latter 
way is preferable. If rapid growth depends on the child's 
questions rather than on the teacher's questions, why not let 
the pupils state verbally the questions that have confronted 
them in the lesson, and particularly the questions that still 
persist partially or wholly unanswered? In most instances, 
if the class discusses the questions raised by the pupils, not 
only are the questions more nearly in line with the child's in- 
herent needs, but their consideration almost invariably leads 
to a consideration in relationship of the material of the les- 
son which offers slight mental difficulties. If the teacher 
follows the lead of the children, therefore, the particular 
needs of the children are met, time is not wasted uselessly 
in informational tests, and those parts of the lesson which 
offer no particular difficulty to the child usually come out 
in relation to the real mental difficulties. The teacher vir- 
tually covers the unit of work, but the focus of emphasis is 
where it ought to be, not on that part of the organization 
which the teacher considers objectively of greatest im'por- 



126 The Project Method m Education 

tance, but upon that part of the lesson which the pupil sub- 
jectively feels is of greatest significance to him, from the 
standpoint of accomplishment. This viewpoint can be ac- 
cepted without vitiating the importance of pertinent ques- 
tions on the part of the teacher. Questions from the teacher, 
if pertinent, may be very stimulating, but the above discus- 
sion should suggest the desirability of formulating all ques- 
tions with a sympathetic understanding of the viewpoints of 
the children concerned. 

A series of project-questions may arise, one question aris- 
ing out of the interpretation of another question. Objec- 
tively considered, the teacher may have an "exercise" in 
mind, that she hopes and believes the children will interpret, 
but the exercise is not a project-exercise unless it is held in 
mind by the child as an exercise unit to be interpreted. If 
each of the succeeding questions and answers is the unit' of 
activity without any purposeful relation to the exercise, or 
series of questions and answers, the "objective exercise" may 
be mastered by the child, not as a project exercise, but as a 
series of project-questions. 

The answer to one question frequently may suggest an- 
other question. A related series may be illustrated as fol- 
lows : The child may ask, "May I have a piece of meat for 
dinner?" Answer. "Yes, but the piece will not be so large 
as usual." Question. "Why will the piece be smaller than 
usual?" Answer. "Because the price of meat has in- 
creased." Question. "Why has the price of meat in- 
creased?" Answer. "Because the packers must pay more 
for the stock than formerly." The questions that might 
arise might be continued almost indefinitely in this way. 
The purpose in each case is immediate, and there is no or- 
ganized plan in advance by means of which the questions 
take a particular order, but the answer to one question may 



Learning by Projects 187 

arouse another question. A considerable proportion of hu- 
man development occurs in this haphazard, related fashion. 
Frequently the answer to a question may arouse different 
questions in the minds of different people. If a group, con- 
sequently, starts with the same original question, the succes- 
sive questions presented to each member may lead the differ- 
ent members along radically diverging paths of development. 
If each member does the relating for himself, however, he is 
growing naturally, according to inherent promptings. This 
independent relating is much to be preferred to the arbi- 
trary relating imposed on a group by the logic, prejudice, 
or whims of the teacher. 

The project-question, in the form of a successive related 
series of questions and answers, need not be employed con- 
stantly. Some topic as corn may arise as a concept in the 
mind of the child. A series of questions centering about 
corn, but without any attempt to answer a central prob- 
lem, may arise. Was there a good corn crop last year? 
What kind of corn was grown? How long has corn been 
grown in America? What use is made of corn? How is 
the corn cut? How jnuch .can a good corn husker make 
in a day? Many other questions may arise in the mind 
of the individual, each arising out of the central idea, and 
having a close relation to it. The questions may not for- 
mally be reduced to words, but may be presented to the mind 
merely as a mental difficulty. For the sake of clarity, it fre- 
quently may be desirable that an individual shall attempt to 
express his questions in a definite, approved form, but too 
much stress on the form tends to deaden the spontaneous 
grappling with ideas. 

In the above discussion, no attempt has been made to bar 
the teacher from the placing before the class of questions 
having close, successive relations to each other, or of ques- 



128 The Project Method m Education 

tions having close relations to a central topic, or to prevent 
the teacher from placing a series of directions before a class 
to be translated into action. A certain amount of direction 
undoubtedly is desirable. The intelligent guidance of older 
people is necessary as a means of insuring that the children 
will secure the social inheritance. Just as there are various 
knowledges and skills to be transmitted socially, there are 
certain ways of doing things that may be transmitted as 
well. Children should be enabled to profit by racial ex- 
periences so far as this is practicable, but the well-trained 
teacher always should keep in mind that mere imitation is 
insufficient, and that a proper individualistic development 
requires that the child shall have a considerable amount of 
opportunity to establish his own relations and to effect his 
own organization. 

A project-problem involves a mental difficulty the over- 
coming of which requires the consideration, selection, and 
evaluation of a considerable quantity of material. There 
are many mental difficulties, as has been noted, that can be 
satisfied in a very simple manner. There are other mental 
difficulties that require a careful consideration, selection, 
elimination, and evaluation of materials. In satisfying such 
difficulties, sustained thought is necessary and the judgment 
constantly must make decisions in the solution of the prob- 
lem. Instead of numerous minor difficulties, however, that 
arise in relation to a central topic, there is a central prob- 
lem the solution of which involves numerous minor mental 
difficulties. In contrast to the project-exercise, every minor 
question or problem, not only must have some relation to 
the central topic, but if retained as an essential part of the 
problem, must have a direct bearing upon the particular 
problem. If the project-problem is "How may the corn 
crop most effectively be tided over the period of summer 



Learning by Projects 129 

drought?" many sub-topics, relating to the topic corn, as 
"the husking of corn" would be excluded from positive con- 
sideration. It is insufficient that the material shall deal with 
the topic corn ; it also must have some bearing on the prob- 
lem. 

A higher type of mental activity is involved in the proj- 
ect-problem than is involved either in the project-question 
or the project-exercise. The person, under the impelling 
control of a project-problem, no longer is free to follow the 
haphazard vagaries of the mind, in moving from idea to idea, 
but each minor difficulty rigorously must be considered in 
the light of its relation to the central problem. If there 
is no vital relation, however interesting the suggested minor 
problem may be in and of itself, it temporarily must be 
pushed into the background. In the consideration of the 
minor problems relating to a project-problem, the central 
problem in some instances may tend to lose some of its at- 
tractiveness, and some minor problem may tend to supplant 
it. The next possible step is that some question, unrelated 
to the central problem, may arise in connection with the so- 
lution of the minor problem, and the mind either temporarily 
or permanently may wander from the project-problem. A 
person, who permits himself thus to be sidetracked, has fallen 
into a lower type of mental activity, and again is making use 
of project-questions and project-exercises as a means of 
growth. While no one would question the educative value 
of project-questions and project-exercises, at the same time 
it should be recognized that the substantial progress of the 
race depends on the ability of human beings not only to feel 
keenly the need of solving project-problems, but also upon 
their ability to control the minor problems in such a way 
that the larger problems will be solved assuredly and eco- 
nomically. 



130 The Project Method in Education 

A project-complex involves the interpretation of a unit 
situation, of considerable difficulty. Strictly speaking, a 
project-situation, represented by the completion of a cycle 
of mental activity, may involve a question only, an exercise 
only, a problem only, or questions, exercises, and problems 
in any relative proportion or combination. On account of 
this wide latitude in the use of the word situation, it seems 
best to regard a situation involving questions, exercises, and 
problems as a project-complex. The child makes no partic- 
ular attempt to differentiate among questions, exercises, and 
problems. He primarily is interested in unit situations. It 
is only by analyzing these unit situations into their parts 
that questions, exercises, and problems are discovered. It is 
seen that unit situations may contribute to larger unit situ- 
ations, and the larger situation may contribute to the inter- 
pretation of still larger situations, etc., until at last through 
the various unit situations, both large and small, both simple 
and complex, the individual sees these situations as parts of 
the great "project situation" of life. 

With the increasing ability of man to engage in the higher 
mental activities, he finds it possible not only to overcome 
questions or minor mental difficulties, or a situation involv- 
ing groups of questions, but also to take up a complex situ- 
ation, the interpretation of which involves the keenest ability 
and most sustained thinking. Questions, exercises, and prob- 
lems may enter into the complex situation in varying degrees. 
The time span involved in mastering the situation may be a 
long one. The more successfully the individual can meet the 
problem-complexes of life, the more nearly has he reached 
the culminating possible mental attainment for man. 

The ability to interpret project-complexes is the culminat- 
ing point possible in mental development. Practically every 
child can interpret situations involving project-questions 



Learning by Projects 131 

and project-exercises. Almost from the beginning of life a 
difference in the relation of children to project-situations is 
observable. Some children, seemingly more self-active than 
other children, constantly are engaging in mental activities 
that arouse mental difficulties. Some children apparently 
must depend upon others to arouse a feeling of need within 
them. Out of the first group, it may be expected, other con- 
ditions being equal, that leaders will develop, and out of the 
last group, followers will develop. Practically every child 
is able to interpret situations involving project-questions 
and project-exercises, but the percentage that successfully 
can wrestle with project-problems is much lower, while the 
proportion that efficiently and adequately can initiate and 
independently interpret the situation-complexes is much 
smaller. Assistance, therefore, must be rendered many chil- 
dren in helping them not only to have experiences out of 
which mental difficulties will arise, but also in helping them 
to overcome these difficulties. Many, destined always pri- 
marily to follow leaders, will be able to understand and to 
adopt the projects of others. Through a study of the va- 
rious difficulties confronting the child, he interprets and de- 
velops. All pupils are given an equal chance to develop, but 
as they struggle with the various project situations, dif- 
ferences are bound to appear. Since questions, exercises, 
problems, and complexes are successively difficult, and since 
each type of project is dependent in a way upon the preced- 
ing types, the significance of relating properly these types 
will be seen. Since the mental difficulties arise out of the 
situations in which the individual is placed, the teacher will 
see that her primary task is to place the child amidst en- 
vironmental conditions so that not only appropriate mental 
difficulties will arise, so that the pupil not only will find it 
possible to overcome his mental difficulties, but so that he 



1S2 The Project Method in Education 

also will be provided with an adequate motive which insures 
success. 

In actual practice, types of projects may not easily be 
distinguished. In order to understand the normal develop- 
ment of the child in relation to materials, four groups of 
projects, the question-project, the exercise-project, the 
problem-project, and the complex-project, have been recog- 
nized. An attempt has been made to show the relation be- 
tween an increasing mental ability and an increasing com- 
plexity in the organization of materials. In actual prac- 
tice, however, the teacher does not divide the child's life into 
four parts, each part representing a particular class of 
projects. The various groups of projects are recognizable 
as factors in the child's development, at a very early age. 
With increasing maturity, the relative emphasis should 
change. The child will engage in many units of activity the 
classification of which will be difficult. In each instance, 
however, it will be found that one of the four types or a 
mixture of two or more of the types is concerned. 

Peoblems 

1. By means of examples, indicate how a teacher's projects 
differ from a pupil's projects. 

2. Give an illustration, preferably from experience, of a 
(a) project-question, (b) project-exercise, (c) project- 
problem, and (d) project-complex. 

3. By means of illustrations, indicate the relations of the 
four types of projects noted. 

4. Are inequalities in development among individuals in- 
evitable? Illustrate how individual self-realization may 
be impossible (a) because of social conditions, and (b) 
because of inherent inability to attain or maintain effi- 
ciently the higher mental activities. 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE PROJECT-QUESTION 



The 'project-question is a relatively simple mental diffi- 
culty. As the child comes into contact with his environ- 
ment, he is eager to interpret it. "What is that?" and 
"What is that for?", "Where did you get that?", "What 
did you do that for?", "How did you do that?", "Where are 
you going?", "What are you going for?" are some of the 
types of questions which the energetic child uses in indicat- 
ing the numerous simple mental difficulties that challenge his 
abilities. It is fair to assume, on the basis of the varied ac- 
tivities of the child, that there are numerous simple difficul- 
ties that arise, which are not stated formally. If the child 
encounters a difficulty, and immediately is able to interpret 
it, the question and the answer to the question may be prac- 
tically coincident. The formal asking of such a question 
may be uneconomical (a) from the standpoint of time, (b) 
because the close association of question and answer may be 
interrupted, (c) because the difficulty may be solved so 
quickly that the formal stating of the question no longer 
presents a real difficulty to the child. Normal development, 
consequently, involves the raising of many simple questions 
which never are expressed formally in oral or written lan- 
guage. 

The simple difficulty may require the assistance of another 
person. When a simple difficulty arises, the interpretation 
of which readily is not grasped by the child, the tendency 

133 



134 The Project Method in Education 

of the child is to depend upon some other person to assist 
him. An indication of the nature of the difficulty ordinarily 
requires an expression of the difficulty by the use of words. 
Formal questions normally are asked, therefore, when the 
answer is not discerned readily. Since the questions, which 
the child quickly interprets, may not be definitely formulated, 
it is to be expected that the questions, in many instances, 
will be poorly stated, for the child's interest is not in the 
language as a language, but in the difficulty which the lan- 
guage permits him to convey to another. A few attempts to 
ask a formal question indicate to the pupil the desirability 
of expressing the difficulty as clearly as possible. He be- 
comes interested, therefore, in the correct use of language 
as a medium of expression. On the basis of need, he learns 
to express his difficulties in the form of clear, concise English. 
Assisting the pupil too much may make him an habitual 
questioner, dependent upon others. It is natural that a 
person should attempt to meet his difficulties in the easiest 
possible way. If a person were called to Washington from 
Chicago on urgent business, he would be regarded as lacking 
in intelligence if he did not take the best route between these 
two cities. If the pupil finds that his difficulties will be met 
by another person, he tends, in time, to depend upon another, 
not only for assistance in answering questions, but also for 
assistance in answering questions that he can interpret alone. 
Another person more and more comes to do the child's work 
for him. Questions raised formally by the child become more 
and more frequent, more and more persistent. The normal 
development of the child is retarded and misdirected because 
of this dependent, imitative relation thus established. The 
initiative primarily is exercised in the direction of raising 
questions, but the initiative in answering them is delegated 
to another, which means that a follower and not a leader of 
social activities is being produced. 



The Project-Question 135 

The next step frequently results in the smothering of al- 
most all initiative. Dependence upon another to answer all 
questions leads the pupil to doubt his ability to interpret 
situations. Others finally become tired of his persistent 
questioning, and frequently carelessly answer his questions. 
The careless statements of others involve little effort at 
thinking on the child's part, and even although he is only 
partially satisfied, he accepts the statements in preference 
to an attempt to solve the difficulty. Finally, those to whom 
he asks questions may ridicule him, or smile knowingly at 
him in such a way as to cause him to withhold the asking of 
questions. Initiative in answering his own questions has not 
been developed, and the pupil, much retarded, again must 
begin not only to encounter but to interpret difficulties. If 
he has profited from his experiences, he answers his own 
questions, if possible, and relies upon others only when it is 
absolutely necessary. Henceforth there is marked educative 
value, not only in the asking of questions, but also in answer- 
ing them. If the first cycle is not too long and results in an 
awakened, enlightened intelligence, it may be justified, not as 
inherently valuable, but as relationally valuable, because of 
the attitude of mind established, which results in economical 
development later. If the first cycle is too extended, or re- 
sults in a pusillanimous, dependent, despairing individual, 
who believes that he is incapable of individual accomplish- 
ment, the "last state is worse than the first," and very care- 
ful guidance is necessary to develop the desired initiative. 

The teacher may assist by asking questions. Much of the 
time of the teacher is taken up with the asking of questions. 
The teacher may be helpful in getting the child to adopt such 
questions as his own, the questions presumably being graded 
in such a way as to cause the child economically to develop. 
Through skilful questioning the teacher may lead the child 
to feel his shortcomings, to the extent that he will want to 



136 The Project Method m Education 

overcome them. The more wholeheartedly the pupil adopts 
the question as his own, the more keenly does he experience 
a mental difficulty. The more heavily the mental difficulty is 
felt, the more readily will the individual willingly attempt to 
interpret the question. Too frequently in the past has the 
test question prevailed. The question which will stimulate 
the child to question himself and also to attempt to answer, 
should be given more consideration. The teacher should 
sense the importance of getting the pupil to take the initia- 
tive both in asking and in answering questions. The pupil, 
insofar as he is able, should be both teacher and pupil in 
taking care of his own development. The teacher will need 
to direct and to assist but she will never attempt to monopo- 
lize either the questioning or the answering aspect of the diffi- 
culty. She will regard each as the rightful and needful pos- 
session of the child as he engages in his unit of activity. 

The questions-project is a very simple unit of activity. 
The question-project, involving a simple reaction, ordinarily 
is a very simple unit of activity, involving a brief period of 
time, and but little reflective thinking. The difficulty may 
be just as real, and the attempt to overcome it may be just 
as wholehearted and as purposeful, however, as if a very 
complex situation were involved. This intellectualized, pur- 
poseful unit of activity is just as characteristically a project 
as the more complex unit. Sooner or later the results of proj- 
ect-question solving may be vital to the interpretation of a 
project-problem. The project-question owes its value in 
large part to its relational bearings upon more comprehen- 
sive life situations. 

The project-question may involve the securing of informa- 
tion. The question that arises in the mind of the pupil may 
be concerned primarily with the what, where, or when of a 
situation. Information rather than explanation may satisfy 
the mental difficulty. The question may arise in response to 



The Project-Question 137 

a natural tendency to become acquainted with the environ- 
ment and life conditions, or it may arise in response to a 
need for the information as a basis for action. The stimu- 
lus in arousing the question may be external. In visiting 
a park for example something moving in the grass may be 
noted. The question, "What is that?" may arise. A closer 
investigation may indicate that a snake is moving in the 
grass. While resting in the park, the person may hear 
music, and in response to his question as to the source of 
the music, he may find that an orchestra is playing in the 
near-by pavilion. The stimulus arousing the question may 
come from within. In response to the desire to know the 
time of day, a person may look at his watch. In response 
to a desire, a person may seek a wild flower, a pleasant 
retreat, etc. 

The project-question may involve the interpretation of 
facts. The question that arises in the mind of the pupil 
may be concerned primarily with the why or how of a situ- 
ation. If an informational question is answered, the inter- 
pretative question, which seeks an explanation of the situ- 
ation, frequently arises. When it is seen that a snake is 
moving in the grass, the question may arise, "Why is the 
snake moving in the grass?" or in response to the informa- 
tion secured that an orchestra is playing in the park, the 
question may arise, "Why is the orchestra playing in the 
park?" In response to the information that a wild flower is 
in a certain place, may arise the question, "Why is the wild 
flower in that particular place?" or in response to the in- 
formation gained concerning the time of day, may arise the 
interpretative question, "Why has the time of day seemed 
to pass so rapidly?" Frequently the informational question 
is answered so quickly that only the interpretative question, 
for practical purposes, remains. 

Both informational and interpretative questions are fun- 



138 The Project Method m Education 

damental. It is desirable that the question of information 
and the interpretative question should be differentiated. The 
pupil who is satisfied with the facts and makes no attempt 
to explain the facts is living upon an inferior mental plane. 
The interpretation of facts involves a reasoning process that 
is based upon, but is of a higher order than the securing of 
facts. The type of thinking involved in interpreting facts 
is similar to the reflective thinking involved in project-prob- 
lem work, and is a fundamental, necessary step in the direc- 
tion of solving the complex problems. 

Illustrations will indicate the difference between vnforma^- 
tional and interpretative questions. The following lists of 
questions will suggest the difference between the informa- 
tional and the interpretative type of question: 



Informational Questions 

1. Name some of the customs of the Japanese. 

2. For what is Tokyo noted? 

3. How does a vessel take on coal? 

4. Indicate the north and south extent of the Japanese 
Islands. 

'5. Who are the Ainos? 

6. What is the most important industry of Japan? 

7. Japan is part of what great volcanic belt? 

8. How do the Japanese sleep? 

9. In what ways are beans used? 

10. Describe a turtle farm. 

11. Name the important industries of Osaka. 

12. When and by whom was the silk industry established? 

13. What direction is Japan from St. Louis? 

14. What is the chief port of Japan? 



The Project-Question 139 

What was the early conception concerning the cause 

of earthquakes? 

At what time of the year is the rainfall heaviest? 

To what extent are ornaments found in the home? 

What are the sources of the hot water used in bathing? 

What is a jinrikisha? 

In what part of Japan are horses used? 

Interpretative Questions 

1. Why should we be especially interested in Japan? 

2. Why is Nagasaki an important city? 

3. Why is the climate of the northernmost islands different 
from that of the more southerly? 

4. Why is there greater need for wider streets than a few 
years ago? 

5. Why is the lacquered ware very expensive? 

6. Why is it difficult to run a turtle farm successfully? 

7. Why is Osaka sometimes called the Manchester of the 
East? 

8. Do the Japanese do things topsy-turvy? 

9. Why does Japan feel the need for a strong navy? 

10. Why does Fuji-yama, although 2,000 feet lower than 

Pikes Peak, appear to be higher? 
LI. What effects do the ocean currents have on the climate? 
L2. Why should the Japanese let men do the work of 

horses ? 
L3. Why are there more horses in the northern and north- 
western parts? 
L4. Account for the heavy rainfall of summer. 
L5. Are the Japanese houses adapted to an earthquake 

and typhoon region? 
.6. Why are "godowns" highly valued? 



140 The Project Method in Education 

17. Why are fires frequently very extensive? 

18. In Japan several people bathe in the same water. Is 
this custom as unsanitary as if it were done in the 
United States? 

19. Why should the Japanese be called the "Yankees of the 
East?" 

20. Why is the population so irregularly distributed? 

The above illustrative questions have been suggested by 
several supplementary readers that are used in the grades. 
It may be noted that the interpretative question of the child 
may be a project-problem for a more mature person, who 
is interested in a detailed, comprehensive, exhaustive inter- 
pretation. 






CHAPTER IX 



THE PROJECT-EXERCISE 



The project-exercise involves question steps looking to- 
ward the completion of the exercise. In the project-ques- 
tion, the question and its answer constitutes the child's unit 
of activity. The succeeding questions may refer to widely 
different topics, or to the same topic. If the project-ques- 
tions relate to the same topic, however, it is because the 
interpretation of one project-question leads to another proj- 
ect-question. There is no purposeful consideration of ques- 
tions in relation to a central topic, but the pupil, in each 
case, considers the question-and-answer as the completed unit 
of activity. A successive series of project-questions, if they 
happen to be related to a larger topic, may involve the same 
material as a more comprehensive project, but the more com- 
prehensive purpose, which demands the raising and answer- 
ing of a related series of questions, is absent. If the ques- 
tion-and-answer is a complete unit of activity, the question 
is a project-question, but if the question is raised, and the 
answer secured as an aspect of a larger topic, the activity 
involved is a project step. In each case the particular reac- 
tion may be the same, but purpose may radically differ. A 
series of related questions, bearing upon a central topic, in 
which the central purpose is the interpretation of the larger 
topic, is a project-exercise. 

The project-exercise is more difficult than the project- 
question. The project-exercise is a more comprehensive 

141 



142 The Project Method m Education 

unit of activity than the project-question, and is correspond- 
ingly more difficult. It involves not only the interpretation 
of questions, but an understanding of their relationships to 
a central topic. The fundamental purpose is not to answer 
a question, but to answer the question as a link in the inter- 
pretation of the larger unit. The exercise is more difficult, 
therefore, because it involves, in addition to the relation of 
answer to question, the relation of question-and-answer to the 
exercise. 

The project-exercise is a desirable unit m the development 
of the child. If actual intellectual development is to keep 
apace with the child's ability to develop, he must attack cor- 
respondingly more and more difficult situations. The child, 
who remains primarily in the question-and-answer state of 
development, cannot intelligently accomplish much in the way 
of advancing the interests of himself and society. Through- 
out life, to be sure, the project-question will be important, 
but it is desirable that a higher type of thinking gradually 
shall be developed. There should be no attempt to violate 
the psychological nature of the child by attempting too 
abrupt a change in the way of thinking. The transition 
from one type of project to another type should be gradual, 
the more advanced type supplementing the simpler, and 
slowly increasing in relative emphasis, but never being wholly 
substituted for the simpler mental processes. The relating 
of questions-and-answers to a larger topic is an advance in 
the type of mental difficulty, but at the same time so closely 
is related to the project-question that the experiences and 
abilities of the child are exercised similarly, but with increas- 
ing mental, demands. 

The project-exercise is a type intermediate between the 
project-question and the project-problem. While the proj- 
ect-exercise is closely related to the project-question it also 



The Project-Exercise 143 

is closely related to the project-problem. The consideration 
of questions in relation to a central topic necessarily affords 
training in the raising and answering of pertinent questions 
in relation to the topic. A selective process is involved by 
means of which relevant material is discussed. Questions are 
raised and interpreted, and brought together into a rela- 
tional unity. There is a relational and organizing process 
that is akin to the project-problem, although the reflective 
thinking and relentless evaluation of materials, looking to- 
ward the solution of a problem of considerable difficulty, is 
not present. 

The project-exercise may be the preparatory step out of 
which a project-problem grows. One project-problem may 
proceed out of another project-problem, but frequently, as 
a result of a project-exercise, some problem or problems 
may arise that have all of the characteristics of typical proj- 
ect-problems. Project-exercises that are not related di- 
rectly to project-problems are a fundamental basis for such 
work, as the richness of experience of the individual is highly 
significant, not only b/cause of the numerous points of con- 
tact with the larger world which may cause problems to arise, 
but also because, of the great variety of material that is 
available in the interpretation of project-problems. 

Type studiis, as ordinarily conducted, primarily are proj- 
ect-exercises. In a large city may be several large dairy 
plants. Certain details of the plants may vary, but the gen- 
eral processes may be similar. The milk is shipped from the 
rural districts, taken to the dairy plant, clarified, pasteur- 
ized, cooled, bottled, and distributed. Some dairy plant may 
be studied as a type of the dairy plants of the city. There 
is no particular problem of considerable complexity about 
which the work centers, but the purpose is to enrich the 
child's concept of a dairy plant. A visit may be made to the 



144 The Project Method m Education 

plant, and a general class discussion may follow. The study 
of a dairy plant, or of some other industrial establishment, 
in a similar fashion, primarily is a project-exercise. 

Imaginary, as well as real, journeys frequently are proj- 
ect-exercises. An imaginary journey may be taken, which 
will involve a discussion of places and activities that can be 
noted. If the trip were from New Orleans to Chicago, e. g., 
discussions might hinge about the principal cities and their 
activities, the rural districts and their activities, and the 
redistribution of commodities. No particular comprehen- 
sive problem may be involved but a variety of concepts may 
be secured or enriched, each having some relation to the 
comprehensive purpose of the individual to acquaint himself 
with the dominant and characteristic activities along the 
route. Most imaginary journeys are project-exercises. 

Project-exercises may include minor problems. In con- 
nection with a project-exercise, numerous questions that re- 
fer to the underlying reasons for observed phenomena may 
arise. They may partake of the nature of miniature proj- 
ect-problems. If the project-exercise is a unit, however, 
and if the problem is not a problem of considerable com- 
plexity, it is to be regarded as a minor problem. 

The project-exercise is a common type of school work. 
The project-exercise is fundamental in the development of 
the child. The schools of the past have been content if the 
child showed ability in the use of the project-exercise. With- 
in recent years the significance of the project-problem has 
been emphasized. This higher phase of thinking does not 
lessen the importance of the project-exercise, but tends 
rather to magnify its significance, for the project-exercise 
is not the final goal of educational endeavor. It is a fun- 
damental antecedent preparation for successful project- 
problem work. 



CHAPTER X 



THE PROJECT-PROBLEM 



A problem of considerable difficulty is a project-problem. 
Problem work, during the last few years, has been strongly 
emphasized. The better teachers of all times probably have 
made extensive use of problem solving, but the recent added 
emphasis has done much in the way of making the teachers 
conscious of the significance of problems. Defined in its 
broadest sense, every intellectualized effort to overcome a 
mental difficulty is an effort to solve a problem. From this 
viewpoint the development of the individual is contingent 
upon a series of successive, appropriate problems. The 
mental difficulty may be so simple that it can be overcome by 
a simple reaction, or it may be so difficult that a consider- 
able period of time and a careful consideration of much 
material may be necessary for its solution. Considered in 
this broad way, the activity aspect of a project is the en- 
deavor of the individual to solve the problem, which is that 
part of the project that directly concerns the pupil. The 
teacher thinks in terms of the problem-project, and the pupil 
thinks in terms of the project-problem. 

Somewhat arbitrarily, perhaps, the use of the word prob- 
lem has been restricted to a much narrower field in a consid- 
eration of types of projects. The project-problem is re- 
garded as a problem of considerable complexity arising out 
of a situation, and involving the consideration, interpreta- 
tion, and evaluation of much material for its solution. 

145 



146 The Project Method in Education 

The 'project-problem vitally is related to project-questions 
and project-exercises. The project-problem is dependent 
upon project-questions and project-exercises for its solu- 
tion. If the pupil is to make adequate use of project-prob- 
lems, therefore, as a part of his educational development, it 
is desirable that his life shall have been enriched through the 
interpretation of numerous project-questions and project- 
exercises. In the lower grades the dominant emphasis will 
be placed upon project-questions and exercises. The child 
will be permitted to come into contact with appropriate ma- 
terials, and through the stimulus effected will feel the need 
of securing information and of interpreting the materials. 
He will develop, not through the imposition of a logical, 
sequential, external organization of material, each child 
conforming to the same mold, and meeting the same objective 
requirements, but according to the related questions and 
exercises that are aroused in his inherent nature. 

Since the kind of mental difficulties that will arise in the 
minds of different children, even with the same objective 
stimulus, will vary, while the general direction of development 
will be the same in a group of children, it is to be expected 
that the details, concerning the particular questions and ex- 
ercises, will vary. It is the attempt, partly from the stand- 
point of economy in school management, to impose the same 
objective organization upon every pupil, expecting all to 
respond in a similar fashion, that goes far in explaining the 
relative lack of leadership, and of independent thinking, and 
lack of individuality, among children, with increasing age. 
If the teacher has directed, and has not arbitrarily con- 
trolled the early development, a considerable amount of initi- 
ative, of independent thinking, and of real judging, has en- 
tered into the activities of the child. The best possible train- 
ing for project-problem solving has been given. The more 



The Project-Problem 147 

fact material, pertinent to the problem, that the pupil has 
available, the more satisfactorily, other conditions being 
equal, will he be able to meet the demands of the problem. 
The memorization and organization of valuable fact mate- 
rial subject to ready recall, therefore, is highly significant. 
With increasing experiences and expanding ability to engage 
in sustained thought, pupils can attack more and more diffi- 
cult problems. 

Project-problems should be graded so as to be adapted to 
the child. Educationally it is not sufficient that the child 
shall have a problem. Problems should be graded so as to 
challenge the increasing ability, so as to appeal to the child's 
changing interests, so that, at any particular time, the prob- 
lems thus far solved will furnish the adequate training for 
out-of-school life. This does not mean that an objective 
organization of problems should be effected and arbitrarily 
applied, but that practice in the definite organization of ma- 
terials in the form of problems will help the teacher to un- 
derstand the child's viewpoint in relation to problems. From 
the standpoint of different children or of successive classes, 
there is no "best" list of problems. 

Increasing ability to interpret project-problems will come 
with increasing maturity and development. While project- 
questions and project-exercises necessarily will be given the 
prominent emphasis in the lower grades, at least so far as 
the child's viewpoint is concerned, project-problems will not 
be excluded. With the enriching of the personal world of 
the child, however, there will be more numerous points of con- 
tact with related unknown materials, and greater possibili- 
ties of recombinations of ideas, so that the probabilities of 
project-problems arising will increase. It is fortunate that 
this increase in number and difficulty of project-problems 
goes hand in hand with an increase in experiences upon which 



148 The Project Method m Education 

the individual can draw as a basis for the interpretation of 
the elements entering into the problem. In fact, there is a 
tendency for a continuous process to be established, since 
the interpretation of a problem enriches the mind, and since 
the enriching of the mind leads almost invariably to addi- 
tional problems. 

Professor Freeman has written: "In early life a child is 
particularly prone to make outward movements in response 
to stimuli. As he grows older, he learns to check these move- 
ments. It is evident to any observer of the child that he is 
impulsive, that he does not stop to compare different courses 
of action, or to deliberate which course he shall take. The 
response which consists in making inner decisions, therefore, 
is one which comes as the result of gradual mental develop- 
ment, and is partly due to the growth of the ability to check 
the more natural, immediate, outward responses. The re- 
sponse by reflection or by thought is the highest product of 
the child's education. It begins in the early years, it is true, 
and should be encouraged throughout his education, but it 
becomes more and more prominent as he grows older." 
(Freeman. How Children Learn, pp. 7-8.) 

To attempt to organize all school work about project- 
problems is unwise. A great deal of the development of the 
child comes through contact with the environment in ways 
that are not characteristic of a typical project-problem. The 
project-questions and project-exercises may be thought of 
as supplying the child, however, with project-problem ma- 
terial. A considerable proportion of an adult's time is taken 
up with gossip, political gossip, real estate gossip, school 
gossip, factory gossip, church gossip, recreation gossip, etc. 
An exchange of information and ideas is effected without any 
particular attempt being made to solve a problem, but each 
participant may return to his own work with added inspira- 



The Project-Problem 149 

tion or suggestions that will enable him to meet more ef- 
fectively his special problems. Much of the school work un- 
doubtedly should center about project-problems, but to seek 
to organize a course of study exclusively about them, always 
conspicuously setting them up before the pupil, is to set up 
an artificial, formal organization that does not by any means 
exclusively and dominantly prevail in adult life. 

A project-problem may be stated hi the form of a ques- 
tion, but not all questions are project-problems. An an- 
swer to the question, "How old are you?" involves a very 
simple reaction, without any reflective, thought-provoking 
relationships being involved. Such questions are to be re- 
garded as project-questions. They may be of considerable 
direct value, as in the classifying of men for military service, 
or they may be of great potential value because of problems 
which grow out of them or because of the use to which the 
information later can be put in solving problems. It is not 
necessary that the question definitely shall be expressed. If 
the child sees heat being applied to water and the rapid dis- 
appearance of water, the question can be asked as to why 
the water disappears so rapidly, or without any one defi- 
nitely asking a question, the child may say that the water 
disappears rapidly because the application of heat causes it 
to vaporize. If the question were asked as to why it is ex- 
ceedingly difficult to establish a permanent league of nations, 
no simple reaction would be adequate, and a project-problem 
has taken an interrogative form of expression. The teacher 
should regard the problems as parts of projects, and not as 
isolated unities. The problem, to be effective, must belong 
to some one. Not the least important of the teacher's work 
is to recognize problem-projects, and to evaluate them as a 
means of child growth. 

Reflective thinking is an important characteristic of proj- 



150 The Project Method m Education 

ect-problem solving. An important feature of the project- 
problem is the extent to which the individual must reflect 
upon a large amount of material, constantly exercising judg- 
ment in rendering decisions. Material bearing upon the 
problem must be selected from a great body of irrelevant 
material. The relative importance of pertinent material 
must be determined. Conclusions must be reached, in most 
instances, not on the basis of mathematical precision, but 
through a consideration of complex, interacting relation- 
ships, the relative values of which are very difficult to de- 
termine. In adult life, we do the best that we can with many 
problems, and we should not expect more of the child. 

The project-problem may have many forms of expression. 
The problem may assume (a) the form of a question, as 
"Why did the New World come to be discovered?"; (b) the 
form of a debate, as "Resolved that a league of nations 
should be formed as a result of the World War";, (c) the 
form of scoring, as "Purpose, to find whether France or Italy 
has the more favorable natural resources for an important 
national development"; (d) a prejudicial declarative state- 
ment, as "Why America must win this war"; or (e) it may 
be reduced to a topical outline, as "Location" under an out- 
line on Japan, which to the initiated might contain the im- 
plied problem, "How has the location of Japan affected its 
development?" The particular form of the problem is not 
nearly so significant as the fact of the existence of the prob- 
lem as a personal problem to the child. 

The pupil's interest is in the project-problem. While the 
teacher's interest is in the problem-project, in the way that 
the child, through the problem, will develop, the pupil's in- 
terest primarily is in the project-problem. He is not mak- 
ing a special study of his personal world and the laws of 
growth. That is the duty of his trained teacher. As he 



The Project-Problem 151 

comes into contact with his environment, and as ideas come 
to him, problems which he wants to solve may arise. The 
teacher may have been instrumental in seeing that the ma- 
terial was present, and may have aided the pupil in making 
the problem his own. The problem is not the pupil's prob- 
lem as long as it is externalized. It should be adopted will- 
ingly by the child, and not imposed upon him. The problem 
part of the project, therefore, is the child's special care. 
The emphasis of the teacher is placed on the problem-proj- 
ect, while the pupil places the emphasis upon the project- 
problem. Whether in educational circles we should speak of 
problem-projects or project-problems depends upon the 
viewpoint. Each phrase has a perfectly intelligible peda- 
gogical meaning. 

Desirable problem-projects are difficult to secure. Not 
all problems are desirable for grade work, and not all desir- 
able problems can be used. The definite expression of a 
problem frequently is very helpful. A problem, if stated at 
all, should be stated clearly and definitely. It should be 
worth solving, not merely as a mental exercise, but because 
of the knowledge, skill, or ideal involved. Each problem 
should be sufficiently differentiated from other problems that 
the relevancy of material readily can be determined. The 
ultimate criterion is the extent to which a contribution is 
made to the enlargement of the pupil's mental horizon. 

One of the greatest difficulties under present conditions 
is the securing and adopting of desirable problems by the 
pupils. Teachers, as well as pupils, have gone astray, and 
unfortunately the blind sometimes have been leading the 
blind. Misled by the problem idea, enthusiastic teachers 
have proceeded to attempt to recast all subject-matter into 
project-problem form. Frequently a problem has been 
stated, and almost any information or interpretation, 



1S2 The Project Method in Education 

whether pertinent or not, has been admitted as a vital part 
of the discussion. The fact that project-problems have 
been, and may be, grossly abused, does not at all mean that 
they should not be recognized. Problems are vital in the 
education of the child. Practice by both teachers and 
pupils in selecting and formulating problems growing out 
of situations, in which there is a personal interest, is desir- 
able. The teacher always should be critical of the value of 
all problems of the school room, and pupils certainly should 
be given training in their expression and evaluation. 

The more thoroughly the problem is motivated, the greater 
the probability of maximum success. Arbitrarily assigned 
lessons may not induce a satisfactory response from the 
child. The arbitrary assignment of a lesson in terms of 
a problem, however, is preferable to a purposeless assign- 
ment, but there is no inherent virtue in the problem, objec- 
tively considered, that insures rapid, healthy growth. How 
frequently have self-deluded teachers said: "For our next 
lesson, we shall attempt to account for the rapid develop- 
ment of Southeastern Missouri. Consult the books on the 
reference shelf for information bearing on this problem. Be 
sure to have a good lesson. Class is excused." The pupils 
go at the teacher-selected, teacher-imposed problem with an 
enthusiasm dependent upon the personal influence of the 
teacher, plus the particular nature of the child. Without 
any particular interest in the problem, but from a sense of 
duty, they may proceed doggedly to master the task. If 
they eventually become interested in the problem assigned, 
it will be in spite of and not because of the way the problem 
was secured and assigned. The problem may be a good one 
but it will fail to accomplish its purpose because the assign- 
ment lacks motivation. 

Under such conditions, the pupils may have a problem, 



The Project-Problem 153 

to be sure, the problem of meeting the teacher's requirements. 
In meeting the terms of their real problem, it may be neces- 
sary for them to consider incidentally, insofar as is vital to 
their problem, the problem assigned. The extent to which 
the problem assigned will be studied will depend upon the 
particular requirements of the teacher, as the pupils nor- 
mally will master only as much of it as is necessary to meet 
the conditions of the real problem confronting them. If the 
pupils do not feel the problem assigned as their own prob- 
lem, or the problem of meeting the teacher's requirements as 
a real problem, little or no study may be placed on the ma- 
terial as a result. To the extent that the pupils study con- 
cerning the rapid development of Southeastern Missouri so 
as to meet their own problems, valuable material is being 
considered. The fact that much of such work done in school, 
however, is done because of the problem of meeting the 
teacher's requirements, accounts for the failure of much of 
the material to function properly after the pupil has ceased 
to have such problems, and begins to consider problems that 
are inherently and intrinsically valuable to his well-being. 

Another way of using a problem, an improvement over the 
way just mentioned, is to give the class the problem "Ac- 
count for the rapid development of Southeastern Missouri," 
the assignment being followed by explanatory material, in- 
tended to arouse an interest on the part of the pupils in the 
problem. This method is similar to the method commonly 
followed in the pulpit of reading a text and then preaching 
about it. The chief difficulty with this method of procedure 
is the reversal of the proper order. 

The preferable way for a problem to originate is that it 
shall arise naturally in the mind of the child out of material 
that he is considering. Perhaps relatives or friends of some 
of the children have invested in land in Southeastern Mis- 



154 The Project Method m Education 

souri. The newspapers may have carried items concerning 
the yields of cotton, wheat, watermelons, and lumber. The 
teacher may be able to supply material indicating the pres- 
ent state of development and the wonderful progress dur- 
ing the last decade. Some section of the Ozarks, where de- 
velopment has not been nearly so rapid, may be contrasted. 
From this or similar exercise material, a real problem may 
be aroused in the minds of the children. There is no one 
problem that inevitably will be raised, but the problem de- 
manding solution may be: "Account for the rapid develop- 
ment of the lowlands of Southeastern Missouri during the 
past decade." The project-problem, properly motivated, 
may be practically the same problem that was imposed upon 
the class as an unmotivated problem. The way the problem 
originates, however, is vital. The child has a personal in- 
terest in the motivated project-problem and feels a need for 
its solution. 

After the class has a project-problem, the next step is to 
attempt to solve it. After a problem has become a personal 
problem to every member of the class, the next step is to 
attempt to solve the problem. If the problem is : "Account 
for the rapid development of the lowlands of Southeastern 
Missouri during the last decade," such topics as the follow- 
ing may be discussed : transportation facilities by water, rail 
and highway ; climate ; topography ; soils ; drainage ; condi- 
tions favoring and retarding production of various prod- 
ucts ; influx of well-trained farmers ; influences of speculators 
and investors ; control of malaria and other swamp diseases ; 
increasing pressure upon agricultural population elsewhere; 
and markets. If this problem is the real problem on which 
the child is working, if this problem arises out of his own 
experiences and satisfies a real mental difficulty, it is the real 
project-problem of the situation. Under such conditions it 



The Project-Problem 155 

may be expected that great enthusiasm and earnestness will 
be shown in the securing and interpreting of pertinent ma- 
terials. If the real problem of the pupils is to meet the re- 
quirements of the teacher, the focus of attention of the 
pupils has become centered about this real problem, and the 
problem that the teacher had intended that the class should 
emphasize, and the problem that she may deceive herself into 
believing the class has focussed its attention upon, is a sup- 
plementary means of solving the real problem. Most of the 
partial failures of project-problems with classes can be 
traced to the fact that the pupil's real problem has differed 
from the problem that the teacher had intended should be- 
come real, that the pupil never made the problem a personal 
problem, or that, having made the problem a personal prob- 
lem, he temporarily permitted the mental difficulty to exist 
without being willing, ready, or able to put forth the energy 
necessary for its solution. 

The teacher should help the pupil with his project-problem 
in every proper way. Some years ago systematic, objec- 
tive organizations were used by the teacher and imposed 
upon the class. The teacher, as the ruling spirit of the 
schoolroom, tended to make the pupils the slaves to a partic- 
ular organization of subject matter. Now that there has 
been a decided shift in point of emphasis to the viewpoint 
that subject-matter should be subordinated to the child's in- 
terests and development, there is a decided tendency for 
many teachers to feel reluctant to confess that they have 
helped the pupils in any way. Teachers are perplexed, for 
they know that their directing hand is desirable, and yet 
they are aware that well-meaning supervisors may mistake 
proper assistance as the attempt of the teacher to think for 
the child, and to cause all children to conform to a precon- 
ceived mold. In the lower grades a considerable amount of 



156 The Project Method in Education 

help, both direct and indirect, should be given, and for a 
number of times the pupils may need much assistance in the 
solving of project-problems. 

The teacher is merely one of many factors of the environ- 
ment that may enable the child to solve the problem. As the 
child becomes more and more skilful in the solution of proj- 
ect-problems, the relative importance of the teacher should 
decrease, and the pupil should come to depend more and more 
upon other materials. In this way the pupil becomes more 
and more independent and gradually is prepared for the 
time when the teacher, as a helping force, will disappear 
from his environment. 

In discussing the various ways by means of which the 
teacher may secure efficiency in the solving of problems, 
Professor S. C. Parker offers the following suggestions (Par- 
ker, Samuel Chester. Methods of Teaching in High Schools, 
pp. 198-199) : 

"To stimulate and assist pupils in carrying on reflective 
thinking the teacher should 

I. Get them to define the problem at issue and keep it 

clearly in mind. 
II. Get them to recall as many related ideas as possible 

by encouraging them 

1. To analyze the situation and 

2. To formulate definite hypotheses and to recall 
general rules of principles that may apply. 

III. Get them to evaluate carefully each suggestion by en- 
couraging them 

1. To maintain an attitude of unbiased, suspended 
judgment or conclusion, 

2. To criticize each suggestion, 



The Project-Problem 157 

3. To be systematic in selecting and rejecting sug- 
gestions, and 

4. To verify conclusions. 

IV. Get them to organize their material so as to aid in the 
process of thinking by encouraging them 

1. To 'take stock' from time to time, 

2. To use methods of tabulation and graphic ex- 
pression, and 

3. To express concisely the tentative conclusions 
reached from time to time during the inquiry." 

Supervised study is helpful especially m the earlier stages 
of project-problem solving. In connection with the discus- 
sion during the recitation period one or more problems, which 
are to form the basis for the study period, may arise. The 
teacher has a responsibility to perform in connection with 
the study period as well as in connection with the recitation 
period. Whether the studying is done under her immediate 
supervision or not, she should make sure that the pupils 
have the requisite knowledge by means of which they intelli- 
gently can work on the problems. The problem of the 
teacher is to be helpful enough, but not too helpful. It is a 
wise teacher who always can find this middle road. 

Professor Herbert G. Lull regards supervised study as an 
essential part of problem work and discusses this aspect of 
problem solving as follows (Lull, Herbert G. Problem 
Method of Instruction and Its Probable Correlations in Li- 
brary Service and Administration, National Educational 
Association, 1917, — 562-563) : "If the recitation and the 
study of a lesson occur on the same day, the recitation should 
precede the study. Among other activities of the recitation, 
the discovery and the setting of problems to be solved in the 
study-period are important. During the study-period the 



158 The Project Method in Education 

children work individually and occasionally in groups of two 
or three. In this period the children work upon the problems 
which they have discovered or state in the recitation. If 
more than one problem has been discovered, each pupil 
chooses the one in which he is most interested. He first 
writes down the statement of his problem. Then he begins 
making an outline of points which he thinks have bearing 
upon the solution of the problem. At the conclusion of this 
hypothetical outline he may write down some tentative con- 
clusions. At this stage of the work the pupil begins to in- 
vestigate the validity of the points in his outline by reading 
from available sources of information to prove or disprove 
what he has conjectured. He learns to use the index and 
the table of contents of books ; he learns to use maps, statis- 
tical tables, the dictionary, bulletins, to perform experi- 
ments of various kinds, to work out practical manual proj- 
ects; and he learns to use all of these sources as instru- 
ments for the solution of his problem and not as ends in 
themselves. The teacher's function in the study-period is to 
act as a stimulator of activity and is not that of an author- 
ity or a general source of information. It is her business to 
see that the pupils have materials and sources of informa- 
tion with which to work. As the pupils are studying she 
should pass quietly among them, looking over their work. 
She may stimulate them to think accurately and to gather 
their information carefully by asking individual pupils such 
questions as the following: What bearing has step '4' upon 
the problem? What is the relation of point '4* to point 
'5' ? How do you support this -point ? From what facts do 
you draw this conclusion ? Where would you be likely to find 
reliable information on this point? etc. The teacher should 
stimulate suggestions, but she should not be a crutch for the 
pupils to lean upon." 



The Project-Problem 159 

The discussion of the project-problem in class should be 
largely in the hands of the pupils. Considerable skill is nec- 
essary in directing a class engaged in the discussion of proj- 
ect-problems. Pupils, not thoroughly trained in this way 
of thinking, constantly will tend to discuss irrelevant ma- 
terials. A certain amount of irrelevant discussion is desir- 
able, provided, as a result of the discussion, the pupils elim- 
inate the material as having no bearing upon the problem. 
It is inevitable that a certain amount of time apparently 
but not actually will be wasted in this manner. If pupils are 
to be taught to discriminate, they must have practice in 
considering and selecting. The skill of the teacher may be 
necessary at times to hold the discussions to the problem, and 
to secure an interpretation of the materials in the light of 
the problem. The teacher should not attempt to get the 
pupils to conform to her viewpoint arbitrarily, but should 
cause the pupils to adopt her viewpoint because of its rea- 
sonableness. The teacher, in general, should be an incon- 
spicuous member of the class, participating as little as is 
necessary in order that the pupils may secure helpful direc- 
tion, and at the same time feel their own strength in master- 
ing the problem. The discussions should be general, and, 
through the liberal exchange of ideas, each student will come 
to make necessary modifications in his views. 

As an outcome of the detailed study, the problem may be 
solved, or the material summarized. As the class proceeds 
with the consideration of material having a possible bear- 
ing on the problem, all material that is interpreted and ac- 
cepted may be listed in an abbreviated form. The class grad- 
ually thus accumulates materials. When sufficient material 
has been assembled, the class is ready to pass upon it col- 
lectively. With respect to almost every problem it will be 
found that there are disadvantages as well as advantages in 



160 The Project Method m Education 

a certain viewpoint. The relative value of the various facts 
must be determined. Because these values, in many in- 
stances, can not be reduced to absolute terms, it is not al- 
ways possible to agree on the solution. Each individual 
should be encouraged to adopt his own honest viewpoint con- 
cerning the real solution of the problem. Even though he 
may be decidedly wrong, it is better that he candidly should 
assert his opinion than that he openly should agree with 
others, but secretly should believe otherwise. In some in- 
stances, pupils may feel that the evidence is insufficient, or 
inconclusive, and therefore may prefer to leave the material 
summarized without committing themselves. Adults fre- 
quently withhold judgment. In the limited time at the com- 
mand of the class, it is not to be expected that project- 
problems always can be solved, or that more than part of 
the pertinent material satisfactorily can be interpreted and 
summarized. Pupils should be encouraged to make tentative 
conclusions on the basis of the evidence produced, subject to 
modification with the production of further evidence. Even 
if the project-problem has not been completely solved, the 
proper consideration of it, to the extent that the work has 
proceeded, is a valuable type of training. It is preferable, 
in most instances, that pupils should not feel that their tem- 
porary opinion is an act of finality for all time, insofar as 
the particular problem is concerned. 

Individual problem work should be encouraged. There are 
many social advantages that may be derived from group 
problems. It is particularly desirable that every individual 
shall learn how to cooperate with others. It is just as essen- 
tial, however, that the individuality shall be preserved. Prob- 
lems that make a special appeal to some student frequently 
will arise in the recitation. Such a person should be encour- 
aged to work out the project-problem alone. After he has 



The Project-Problem 161 

solved the problem, he can report back to the class, possibly 
stimulating others to want to solve individual problems. The 
individual problem requires the individual to secure and in- 
terpret the material and to come to an independent decision. 
In some cases, each pupil may assume the same problem for 
individual work. The various solutions of the problems may 
be presented in class. If there is essential agreement, no fur- 
ther consideration is necessary. If there are fundamental 
differences, a group problem arises in that it is necessary to 
go over the material cooperatively in an attempt, if possi- 
ble, to eliminate the false. 

Pupils should have practice in group problems, m indi- 
vidual problems, and m -following an explanation of prob- 
lems by others. The desirability of giving pupils practice 
in solving problems cooperatively and individually has been 
suggested. In addition, a certain amount of attention should 
be given to the solution of a problem as indicated by another 
person, perhaps the teacher, or some other member of the 
class. The following of the solution of a problem in a book 
is but an indirect means of following the reasoning of an- 
other. The very poor pupils and the very bright pupils will 
profit from this kind of work. The poor pupils will be able 
through studies of this kind to follow the reasoning of others 
more intelligently, while the bright pupils, able to cover the 
ground rapidly, to make the arguments their own, and to 
profit from the experiences of others, will advance much more 
rapidly than if they had to work out all of the problems in 
the slow, painstaking manner characteristic of the careful 
student. This kind of problem-solving should be permitted 
very cautiously, however, as a lassitude of mind and depend- 
ence upon others are possible outcomes. 

The numerous advantages of project-problems account for 
their increasing Importance m school-room practice. Among 



162 The Project Method m Education 

the advantages, not all of which are peculiar to the project- 
problem, may be noted the following: (a) Subject matter 
definitely is considered in the light of an adjustment to ma- 
terial, in much the same way that it is considered by adults ; 
(b) Haphazard growth is supplanted by systematic growth 
based upon the attaining of an end, several steps removed 
from the present attainment; (c) A situation, worthy of the 
metal of the best that is in a pupil, is established, which un- 
der proper conditions fosters an attitude of determination to 
win; (d) Memory work is required, not on the basis of the 
satisfying of a trivial passing need, but in relation to a prob- 
lem, which induces organizing and classifying, as well as 
memorizing; (e) Reflective thinking, of a very high order, 
is required in the consideration, interpretation, selection and 
elimination of materials; (f) Training in cooperative social 
service, in individual mastery, and in following the arguments 
of others is given in such a way that the relative values of 
solving problems in these various ways are realized; (g) If 
the problem thoroughly is motivated, much interest and en- 
thusiasm is aroused; (h) Language becomes a tool for the 
expression as well as for the transmission of thought; (i) 
Problems involve practically the concentrated energy of the 
child, and call into play his various abilities, thus tending 
toward a balanced development; (j) Problems are very help- 
ful in determining the relative abilities of children, which fact 
is very significant in the directing of pupils into vocational 
lines best fitted to their capacities, abilities, development, and 
inclinations. 

An apparent weakness of this method is an actual 
strength. The relative lack of ability of the weak pupils 
readily is indicated. It is to be expected that a few of the 
pupils will show marked ability, that a few will show marked 
inability, that the majority will show ability in the solution 



The Project-Problem 163 

of problems. This is the situation, whether children or adults 
are being considered. The schoolroom practice will differ 
from the practice of the busy adult group, in that the 
teacher will strive to develop each individual to the limit of 
his capacity, while in the after school days most pupils 
will have no such guiding hand. In general, provided the 
right moral and physical qualities are present, and remain 
present, the pupils who show marked ability in problem solv- 
ing probably will continue to grow until they have become 
leaders of thought and action among men; the pupils who 
show mediocre ability probably will constitute the great class 
of society that can weigh intelligently the factors involved 
in the problems analyzed by the leaders ; the pupils who 
show marked inability, few in number, probably will be de- 
pendent on the preceding two classes, both for leadership and 
direction. The teacher will attempt to secure a maximum 
development of each member of the class, but it is an ad- 
vantage of the method, that, in spite of this attempt, the 
pupils will tend to fall into groups according to ability. 

The skillful teacher, aware of the difficulties and dangers 
of the project-problems, mil avoid or overcome them. A 
difficulty in using the project-problems, from the practical 
standpoint, arises from the inability of pupils and teachers 
to secure satisfactory and varied material, bearing on the 
problems. Teaching is bound to be unsatisfactory if there 
is a class ready and anxious to solve a problem, but little or 
no material available through the study of which the prob- 
lem can be solved or considered satisfactorily. Maps, pic- 
tures, museum material, supplementary readers, magazines, 
and newspaper clippings bearing on the important relations 
of man to his environment, should be on hand. This nucleus 
of material, supplemented by any material the pupils can 
secure, may be the basis for problem solving. 



164 The Project Method in Education 

The school material, bearing on problems, should be placed 
conveniently for the use of the pupils. It is an unnecessary 
waste of the pupil's time to give vague directions as to where 
material can be secured. The solution of project-problems 
does not demand that a child shall wander aimlessly through 
numerous volumes, accidentally stumbling upon pertinent 
material. The significant thing is not that general material 
shall be found, but that, from this material, selections shall 
be made and interpreted to meet the demands of the prob- 
lem. Pupils, however, should be encouraged to secure sup- 
plementary material. It is a mistake to have numerous 
duplications of the same reference with which to supply the 
class. As many different references as possible should be 
secured. Variety rather than uniformity should govern in 
the selection of supplementary material for problem work. 
Pupils, reading different articles, will be stimulated differ- 
ently, and will come to class expecting to make actual con- 
tributions. Through the cooperation of all members of the 
class, the problem should be solved. If a pupil is engaged 
in the solution of an individual problem, the same general 
principles hold true. 

There has been a tendency to misuse problems by taking 
the old, topical, outline organization, and capping it with 
a problem. Particularly in geography has this weakness 
appeared in several courses of study. The old topical or- 
ganization for the study of some areal unit, as Australia, 
China, or Japan, has been taken, and preceded by a prob- 
lem. It is assumed that the solution of the problem will 
involve all factors worth while with respect to the areal unit. 
Under the guise of a problem, consequently, pupils are per- 
mitted to make contributions concerning the areal unit 
whether related to the solution of the problem or not. 
Loose, superficial, inaccurate thinking thus is encouraged. 



The Project-Problem 165 

The problem breaks up into a number of exercises and ques- 
tions. The teacher and not the problem is at fault. 

Only contributions of significance in solving the problem 
should be accepted. A class spirit, unwilling to entertain in- 
accurate or non-pertinent discussions, gradually should de- 
velop. If there is other material concerning the country 
under consideration that should be discussed, this may be 
taken care of through exercises or other problems. Sub- 
problems may aid materially in the solution of a project- 
problem. Sometimes the sub-problems require explanations, 
which may give rise to minor problems and so on. The 
teacher may make a serious mistake by permitting the class 
gradually to move from sub-problem to sub-problem until 
it has lost sight of the original problem. The class is lost. 
The higher mental activities have been supplanted by a lower 
type of thinking. The project-problem has become a proj- 
ect-exercise or a series of project-questions. Any material 
not bearing directly on the problem should be rejected, and 
the sub-problems suggested may be listed for consideration 
after the study of the project-problem has been completed. 

Illustrations of problem-projects will help to make the 
foregoing discussion clear. That problems should be em- 
phasized in school work is no longer regarded as open to 
question. The specific motivation must be left to the teacher 
in every case, but the following synopses indicate what is 
meant by problem-projects : 

Illustration One. Preparatory step: Denmark once 
offered to sell the Danish West Indies to the United States, 
but the United States refused to buy; later, the United 
States wanted to buy the islands, but Denmark, under Ger- 
man influences, refused to sell. In 1917 the United States 
was willing to buy and Denmark was willing to sell. The 
United States purchased the islands for $25,000,000. 



166 



The Project Method in Education 



Problem raised: Are the Danish West Indies worth the 
price? 

Materials secured and interpreted: The islands were con- 
sidered from the standpoint of pastoral, agricultural, min- 
ing, fishing, and manufacturing possibilities, from the stand- 
point of their strategic location in guarding the easternmost 
entrance to the Caribbean Sea and the Panama Canal Zone. 

Problem solved: The islands are worth the price because 
of their strategic importance in helping the United States to 
watch over its interests in the "American Mediterranean." 

Illustration Two. Preparatory step: From a study of 
maps showing the distribution of agricultural products and 
population in Argentina, it was found that over three- 
fourths of the people live, and over three-fourths of the 
agricultural products are produced, in the pampas region. 

Problem raised: Account for the dominating importance, 
in Argentina, of the pampas. 

Materials secured and interpreted: A consideration of 
factors in the pampas, favorable for agricultural production, 
thus accounting for its absolute importance, was made ; and 
a study of limitations imposed, in the Gran Chaco region, 
the Andean foothills, and the Patagonian Plateau, was made, 
to account for the relative importance of the pampas. 

Problem solved: The pampas region is of dominant im- 
portance because of its favorable location, area, topography, 
soils, climate; because of the relatively unfavorable physical 
factors elsewhere. 

Illustration Three. Preparatory step: Leaders of Brit- 
ish thought have insisted that the British Empire must re- 
tain control of the seas. 

Problem raised: Is the British Empire justified in insist- 
ing on sea-control? 



The Project-Problem 167 

Materials secured and interpreted: Consideration of the 
scattered possessions of the Empire, the need of guarding 
the routes connecting them, the island location of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, dependence upon water transportation in 
times of peace as well as war. On the other hand, the rights 
of other nations to similar use of the sea, and the undesira- 
bility of any nation monopolizing or even potentially con- 
trolling the sea were discussed. 

Problem solved or material summarized: If pupils are di- 
vided over the solution of a problem, preferably each child 
should be permitted to come to his own conclusion, but he 
should be required to state his position definitely and con- 
cisely, with reasons therefor. Seldom will the members of 
a class adopt the same conclusions when a problem of this 
type is presented. 

From the foregoing illustrations it will be noted that the 
project-problem has a fourfold aspect: (1) preparatory 
step, involving a consideration of material out of which 
a problem may arise. In many instances the solving of one 
problem may give rise to another problem. The character of 
the preparatory material used is important, since the prob- 
lem and the initial interest of the class in the problem largely 
depend on it. 

(2) Problem raised. A problem is raised and concisely 
stated. Spontaneous self-activity of pupils should be sought. 
A problem is secured in an ideal fashion when the pupils 
raise it. It may be necessary, however, for the teacher to 
assist the pupils and occasionally even to raise the prob- 
lem for the class. The significant thing is not that some 
pupil verbally shall state a problem, but that the class shall 
have a need, a problem — irrespective of how the need was 
created — which it wants to satisfy. Care should be ex- 
ercised in the final statement of the problem, as succeeding 



168 The Project Method m Education 

work hinges on the definite expression of a problem worth 
while. 

(3) Materials secured and interpreted. When the class 
has a problem that it needs, or preferably wants, to solve, 
various sources of information, as textbooks, supplementary 
readers, pictures, maps, museum material, newspapers, mag- 
azines, and people, should be consulted for appropriate 
material. This material should be interpreted so as plainly 
to show its bearing on the solution of the problem. The 
teacher should not attempt to force her organization on the 
class. It is far better to accept the pertinent points made 
by the pupils in the order in which they are made, thus en- 
couraging an easy flow of thought. The pupils should not 
be thinking, What does the teacher want us to say? but, 
What does the solution of the problem demand? 

(4) Problem solved or material summarized. If the prob- 
lem has been solved the solution should be stated by the 
class as accurately, as definitely, and as concisely as possible. 
The final statement should represent the team work of the 
class, if the problem is a group problem. It is not to be 
expected that a definite solution can always be secured, or 
that the individuals of the class will agree on the solution in 
all cases. In the actual problems of life, adults often an- 
alyze and weigh the factors concerned, postponing judg- 
ment. With respect to many problems in life people have 
widely divergent views. It is the province of the teacher to 
work with the pupils, getting them to come to their own 
conclusions, after all the available evidence has been pre- 
sented. All of the above steps need not and probably will 
not appear in the same recitation. An entire recitation 
period, for example, may be devoted to a discussion of the 
preparatory material and the raising of a problem. It is 
not believed that the project-problem, as defined in this 



The Project-Problem 169 

chapter, is the whole of educational endeavor, but it is be- 
lieved that the project-problem should occupy an important 
place in schoolroom practice. 

Project-problem material is an essential part of the proj- 
ect-complex. In the consideration of a project-complex 
numerous questions, exercises, and problems may be involved. 
The more effectively the individual has developed, the greater 
his probability of success in dealing with the project-complex. 
A person may be fired with a purpose to run a store, organ- 
ize and manage a factory, engage in the running of a line of 
boats from St. Louis to New Orleans, or from Buffalo to 
New York City, devote himself to the prohibition or woman 
suffrage movement, etc. A big, comprehensive complex sit- 
uation, requiring a considerable period of time, and involving 
practically every type of thinking is involved. Looked at 
from one standpoint, in fact, the project-complex is a very 
complex problem. 

The types of mental activity inextricably are interwoven 
looking toward the solution of the "project of life" the 
greatest of project-complexes. For convenience the project 
question, exercise, problem, and complex have been rec- 
ognized. There are no sharp lines of separation among 
them, but there are many mental reactions in the transitional 
zones. Moreover, if the simpler types of mental activity are 
analyzed, the materials and processes are found to be po- 
tential parts of higher types ; if the higher types of mental 
activity are analyzed, they are found to include the lower 
types of mental activity. The distinction, consequently, is 
one of degree and relationship rather than an inherent ab- 
solute difference in mental quality. Through questions the 
individual increases his experiences somewhat haphazardly. 
Through exercises, a series of related activities is con- 
sidered. Through problems the knowledge and skill secured 



170 The Project Method m Education 

through exercises and questions are utilized, and additional 
knowledge and skill may result. The questions, exercises, 
and problems enter into a project-complex, and a series of 
closely related and inextricably interwoven series of ques- 
tions, exercises, problems, and complexes, enter into the 
solving of the "project of life." 

Problems 

1. If the words "project" and "problem" are used in their 
broadest sense, what is the relationship between a 
problem-project and a project-problem? 

2. Illustrate the fact that the problem-project of a 
teacher may resolve itself into questions and exercises 
for the pupils. 

3. If a problem is a problem to a child, is one problem 
just as valuable, from the educative standpoint, as any 
other problem? 

4. Is it practicable to organize a school course exclusively 
on the basis of project-problems? 

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a for- 
mal statement of the problem? 

6. What weaknesses are to be avoided in teaching by 
project-problems ? 

7. Illustrate (a) a group problem, (b) an individual prob- 
lem, (c) a problem developed by a teacher, and (d) a 
problem developed in a book. What are the advan- 
tages and disadvantages of each? 

8. What is the relation of a project-problem to other 
types of teaching? 



CHAPTER XI 

MANUAL OB PHYSICAL PROJECTS 

Mental and cesthetic values are present m physical proj- 
ects. The conspicuous factor in physical projects is the 
refashioning of concrete materials through the use of human, 
animal, or mechanical power. Mental activity and appre- 
ciation of values necessarily are vital aspects of the project, 
but the characteristic part of the project is the concrete ob- 
jective accomplishment effected through the relationships 
established with the physical environment. It is not neces- 
sary that a project shall result in concrete objective achieve- 
ment, as imagery can be substituted in the intellectualized 
unit of activity, for the concrete aspects of a project. 
Physical projects not only inherently are valuable, but fur- 
nish the basis for imagery projects. 

Physical projects may include (a) school or home proj- 
ects; and (b) individual or group projects. The school 
garden may offer an opportunity of emphasizing school 
projects, while the home garden or the farm may offer a 
similar opportunity in home projects. The school garden 
will afford an opportunity of solving both individual and 
group projects, while the home environment will permit each 
child to work out some individual project. A singular op- 
portunity is presented of correlating the school work with 
the home work, of arousing initiative in the child as he 
wrestles with his individual projects, and of promoting the 
social attitude through the cooperative projects. 

171 



172 The Project Method m Education 

Physical projects are fundament ally significant m the 
education of the child. There is a close relation between the 
development of consciousness in the young child and muscu- 
lar activity. A basic acquaintance with the environment de- 
mands that the child shall have had some direct experience 
with materials. In a more or less experimental fash- 
ion the child reacts to this environment or causes the 
materials of the environment to react to his voluntary 
movements, and thereby enlarges his experiences. Later on, 
with increasing maturity, it may be possible for the child to 
engage in a unit of project activity without the establish- 
ment of concrete objective relations, but the initial projects 
inevitably, by reason of nature's method of unfolding the 
human life, must be in relation to the material environment. 

The importance of physical projects in education com- 
monly has been overlooked. Physical projects, as long as 
they were carried on in the homes, were not an essential part 
of school work. In the carrying out of projects, however, a 
certain amount of project study was necessary. The schools, 
emphasizing such subjects as reading, writing, and arith- 
metic, were established to supplement and reinforce the phys- 
ical project work of the homes. As the schools came to em- 
phasize more and more the development of the child and as 
they came more and more to assume a large responsibility 
for the preparation of the child for adult life, the curricu- 
lum substantially was enriched. The natural order of de- 
velopment of the curriculum was along the lines previously 
adopted, so that the physical projects were not increasingly 
emphasized. With the decline of physical projects in the 
home, however, the need of a corresponding emphasis of 
physical projects in the school increased. The school work, 
consequently, tended to drift farther and farther away from 
the useful purpose which it had served. Wjjle-awake, am - 



Manual or Physical Projects 173 

bitious boys found opportunities for physical projects on the 
farm or in the factory. Similar opportunities could not be 
secured through the school as long as the schools did not 
relate their work intelligently to the other work of the world. 
Under such conditions, the schools did not efficiently serve 
society. Since the schools have become leaders as well as 
followers of human activities, the significance of physical 
projects again has been earnestly considered with the result 
that the schools are providing not only for the carrying out 
of school projects, but for the supervision of home projects. 

Physical projects serve a purpose that no other type of 
project can serve. The following advantages may be noted 
in the use of physical projects: (a) The child has direct con- 
tact with concrete, objective materials which act as stimuli 
in increasing the child's consciousness of being and experi- 
encing, (b) The use of the imagination is minimized, or at 
least is developed in relation to material realities, (c) The 
physical nature of the child is given opportunity for develop- 
ment, (d) A certain amount of muscular skill in the use of 
tools, and in the manipulation of material things is secured, 
(e) A firm foundation is laid for the development of the men- 
tal and aesthetic life, (f) The fundamental dependence of 
man upon material things and his necessary relations to 
material things is emphasized, (g) Since the physical proj- 
ects are part of the world's work in dealing with materials, 
the child comes to see the dependence of group upon group, 
(h) The numerous relationships established through the ma- 
terial directly and indirectly prepare for individual and 
social efficiency. 

Physical projects must be supplemented with non-man- 
ual projects if maximum possibilities of life are to be at- 
tained. If sole dependence were placed upon physical proj- 
ects in the development of the child, the possibilities of the 



174 The Project Method m Education 

abstract higher life would not be realized. The materialism 
of the child unnecessarily would be overdeveloped, while the 
finer aspects of a human life would not develop sufficiently. 
If the human life is no more than a material being in contact 
with a material environment, the exclusive use of physical 
projects may be desirable. If there is a spark of the divine 
in the child, however, the physical may be regarded as the 
fundamental means of bringing the child into consciousness 
and of developing his consciousness so that he can ponder 
over the good, the true, the beautiful and the spiritual. 
After adequate material concepts are established, moreover, 
the mind of the child, through the exercise of his imagination, 
can recall the material concepts and utilize them in his think- 
ing activities in the working out of immaterial projects. The 
exclusive emphasis upon physical projects would not be 
economical in time or in accomplishment, since, if the ma- 
terial concepts adequately have been grasped, the imagina- 
tion can make use of the concepts in reasoning much more 
readily than if the materials actually were presented for use. 
In a general way, therefore, it may be stated that proper 
educational development requires a relative shifting in em- 
phasis from physical projects with the human being who is 
just beginning to unfold, to an emphasis upon mental and 
aesthetic projects, requiring little manual activity as in- 
creasing maturity is reached. 

Physical projects now are given marked emphasis in prv- 
mary grades. In recognition of the fundamental desirabil- 
ity of relating the child to the material environment in the 
early years of instruction, the kindergarten and primary 
grades make dominant use of physical projects. A unit 
situation is established, out of which the various aspects of 
school training and knowledge are secured. In the kinder- 
garten work, the effort centers about games and other 



Manual or Physical Projects 175 

simple social activities. Out of the unit of work grow 
numerous concepts which are related to the activity. The 
child is living a life as he engages in the varying activities, 
is learning in relation to his experiences, and is securing ad- 
ditional skill and knowledge in working out the unit with 
which he is dealing. He is interested in no subject for its 
own sake, but insofar as it will help him to meet his diffi- 
culties. 

The concept of a city may be built up through a physical 
project. In the first grade of the Wyman School of St. 
Louis, under the direction of Miss Manual, the concept of 
city was built up in the following manner : The children con- 
structed out of cardboard a building which they designated 
the Wyman School. They then constructed other buildings 
to represent Union Depot, the Railway Exchange Building, 
prominent churches, etc. The cardboard representing the 
Wyman School was placed toward the center of the room, 
while the other buildings represented were placed round 
about according to the direction they lay from the Wyman 
School. The pupils thus were securing training in relative 
location. If two buildings were located in a given direction 
the children determined which was nearer the Wyman School 
and placed the miniature representations accordingly. They 
were securing training in position and relative distances 
through these exercises. Some of the children had seen 
the river and told how it sweeps around the city in a large 
semi-circle. The river was properly represented upon the 
floor. Office buildings and wholesale centers were indicated 
near the river, while some of the "nicer" buildings were 
placed in the "West End," where the more fashionable part 
of St. Louis has arisen. No attempt was made to place all 
of the streets, but the children were acquainted with the main 
streets and the streets that they used in going to and from 



176 The Project Method m Education 

school. The familiar streets were located in their physical 
project. From day to day the project material gradually 
increased and was changed, as the children worked individ- 
ually and collectively with it. Numerous questions came up 
and numerous suggestions were made. Some of the streets 
were paved. Green cardboards were placed in front of cer- 
tain residence sections to represent the front lawns, and side- 
walks were placed along the streets. On appropriate streets, 
shade trees were set up, and telephone and telegraph wires 
were strung along poles. The parks were located, and in 
Forest Park a "zoo" was established. The question of alleys 
for the city arose, but the children were not inclined to put 
alleys in, because they said that alleys were always dirty 
and were unnecessary. Policemen were placed upon the 
streets, one being stationed at the busy crossing near the 
school, and traffic policemen being placed at the busiest cross- 
ings of the city. The absence of a fire department was noted, 
and due provision therefor was made. Refuse cans were 
placed along the streets so as to help keep the city clean. 
As the project grew the children became more interested. 
Toy animals for the "zoo" were brought from home. Toy 
fire engines, automobiles, soldiers, etc., were brought and, ac- 
cording to the ideas of the children, properly placed in the 
rapidly growing city. This work was continued for several 
weeks, when the educational possibilities seemed relatively 
exhausted, although the interest of the children gained in 
intensity to the last. 

It is to be noted that this project arose out of the chil- 
dren's experiences, and drew heavily upon their experiences, 
that numerous problems arose which required their best ef- 
forts to solve, causing them to secure additional experiences, 
that the gradual additions from day to day were the results 
of careful observations of the city carried on whenever pos- 



Manual or Physical Projects 177 

sible, that an enthusiastic, purposeful, wholehearted activity 
was aroused in the children which furnished a powerful mo- 
mentum for the successful completion of the project. That 
a certain degree of skill was developed was indicated in the 
appearance of the first buildings and the last buildings con- 
structed by the various individuals. 

In connection with the construction of the city, rich and 
varied material was afforded for giving the children train- 
ing on the basis of need, in numbers, reading, writing, spell- 
ing, history, geography, physiology, language, and social 
relations. The work was not centered about any of these 
subjects, but the subjects were called upon in helping to meet 
the requirements of the unit activity in which the children 
were engaged. Project material was used because of, rather 
than in anticipation of need. Conditions were favorable for 
an economical, desirable growth. The teacher was present 
to direct and counsel, but as much of the work as possible 
was placed upon the pupils, and the particular order of de- 
velopment of the project was determined by the responses 
of the pupils to the situation. 

Practical arts projects, involving self-expression, have 
been introduced into the schools. Manual training in the 
schools is concerned with the construction of numerous use- 
ful articles. The original impetus given to manual training 
as a means of imparting skill in the use of tools has been 
strengthened by the endeavor to give the pupil a motive be- 
cause of the worth-while results that may be obtained in the 
construction of a work of usefulness. It is not sufficient that 
the article shall be useful, but the pupil must feel that it is 
worth while from his personal standpoint. Both group and 
individual school projects may be worked out by the pupils. 
Not infrequently pupils desire to construct something that is 
far beyond their ability. Since the aim of the teacher is 



178 The Project Method m Education 

the development of the child rather than the production by 
the child of some artistic article, the pupil may be permit- 
ted to consider his project far enough for him to see the 
futility of his trying to perfect it, and far enough that he 
may see for himself, with the help of the teacher, any pre- 
liminary training that may be necessary. The pupil, then, 
is in a frame of mind that will enable him to engage in the 
elementary work with the utmost enthusiasm and concentra- 
tion of attention. Little by little the necessary skill and 
knowledge may be secured when the pupil again engages di- 
rectly in the solution of his favorite project. Frequently 
pupils may shift their preferences rapidly from one project 
to another. This should be permitted within bounds, but 
pupils should be made to feel that they should carefully select 
their projects, and then engage in sustained effort until the 
project as a unit is completed. 

Practical arts projects satisfy educational standards. 
Typical projects have been developed in the manual training 
courses. Prof. L. L. Jackson has written (Jackson, L. L., 
The Project-Sinning and Sinned Against, Ind. Arts Mag. 
7, 138-9, '18) : "If he (the pupil) purposes to produce an 
artistic cabinet-type of furniture and ends with an un- 
sightly botch, then his efforts have availed little educationally. 
On the other hand, if the pupil desired to present his mother 
with a piece of his handiwork, and by his honest efforts 
creates only a travesty on furniture, the educational value of 
the project is not lost. The first condition of a proper school 
task, or assignment, is met when the pupil acts under a 
worthy purpose. . . . 

"Furthermore, the practical arts project, even our much 
abused taboret, satisfies more than the first educational cri- 
terion. As soon as the pupil is ready to carry out his reso- 
lution, he either takes the first piece of wood in the stack, 
after the manner of taking the next ten words or problems 



Manual or Physical Projects 179 

or pages, or he seeks the materials most suited to his project. 
In the latter case he passes judgment on several kinds of 
wood, different methods of construction, and types of 
finish. . . . Thus, the despised taboret not only fulfills the 
second standard of good teaching, namely, the exercise of 
judgment, but it provides a real motive for gaining a fund 
of useful information. Then, too, in the matter of motiva- 
tion, one should not forget its companion, participation, 
for however compelling may be the incentive to action in a 
given project, the educational effect is multiplied by indi- 
vidual participation in the activity; and the practical arts 
project, if properly handled, enlists the service and co- 
operation of the pupil's power, both physical and mental. 

"In passing to the third educational test, our project is 
not deficient, for no pupil can intelligently execute a chosen 
design for a taboret without exercising his capacity for or- 
ganization. The mere assembling of the parts already 
worked out, according to the specifications governing the 
design, is an organizing process. 

"Even if our taboret proves too weak for service and is 
relegated to the display shelf, it has none the less fulfilled its 
educative mission by revealing under test the opportunities 
for further improvement in design and execution. 

"It is scarcely necessary to say that initiative and in- 
dependence are desirable results of school work, and attain- 
ments that must accompany teaching. These standards, 
too, are not hard to satisfy in conducting practical arts 
projects. . . . 

"The creation of an object may be wholly justified when it 
has been made so as to fully satisfy its purposes and so 
placed as to do its allotted work; in short, when it becomes 
the right thing in the right place; but it has the further 
important possibility of being made an object of art. 

"Such a treatment of each unit of work requires more 



180 The Project Method in Education 

time than the sloyd system or the tinker shop, also a much 
broader preparation on the teacher's part. . . . 

"The project method foreshadows the practice of teaching 
through types, and after all, is not this plan likely to be the 
ultimate solution of the quantity question? 

"This method is not highly scientific and is accordingly 
more adaptable to school work in intermediate grades. But 
wherever we may draw the line on the quantity of informa- 
tional matter in our curricula, the project method in prac- 
tical arts work furnishes the best way of getting in touch with 
industrial information. It also through correlation helps 
greatly to motivate academic information and the three R's. 

"Thus our humble taboret is a type which needs only the 
help of the modern teacher's viewpoint to make it educative 
by way of purposeful, judicious, logical, and independent 
thinking and to open the further possibilities of participa- 
tion, co-operation, information-getting, self-satisfaction, and 
pleasure giving." 

From the above quotation it will be seen that Mr. Jack- 
son believes in the reorganization of industrial arts ma- 
terials so that the pupils will adopt projects as their own. 
He believes in a worthy purpose, the exercise of judgment, 
the calling forth of both physical and mental powers, the 
exercise of organizing ability, and education through actual 
experience, even though mistakes may be made. If possible, 
art should result, but this is not necessary in project work. 
The project method, efficiently applied, will consider types 
to the elimination of much material now considered vital, 
and to this extent is regarded as unscientific. In no other 
way can the industrial arts work, however, be motivated 
sufficiently. 

Personal motives, in general, are much stronger than social 
motives in the execution of physical projects. If a child 



Manual or Physical Projects 181 

attempts to construct an article because it will satisfy some 
personal need, either ministering directly to his personal 
welfare, or permitting him to establish some type of desired 
relation with his environment, the motivation probably will 
be very strong. The social interests and influences are pres- 
ent, but function most strongly only when a strong personal 
motive also is concerned. Under the guidance of a skillful 
teacher, the purely social motive, such as the construction 
of a piece of furniture for the use of those that come after, 
may function strongly, but ordinarily this motive is not 
strongly developed. The writer recently watched boys en- 
gaged in manual training work upon articles of no particular 
value, upon articles of value in the farm work that was car- 
ried on, and upon articles in which the children had a per- 
sonal interest, because of the personal use to which the re- 
sult could be put, and in the first instance the least interest 
was shown, while in the last instance the greatest interest was 
manifested. 

The school should make available project material bear- 
ing upon the projects of industries. Since the opportunities 
for home manual projects are limited in the cities, school 
manual projects become all the more significant. The fact 
never should be lost sight of that the boy is moving in the 
direction of actively participating in the world's work. In 
many instances, it is possible for a boy to secure work on a 
part-time basis in a factory where real, worth-while projects, 
which his preparation will not permit him to solve, confront 
him. The school can render first aid by indicating to the 
boy its readiness to assist with the necessary project ma- 
terial, either in the day school or in the evening school. 
The work definitely should be mapped out so that the boy 
readily can see the relation of the project material to his 
factory project. If the teacher feels that it is necessary to 



18£ The Project Method m Education 

assure tlie boy that in some mysterious, unknown way cer- 
tain formal material is to assist, it is quite logical that the 
boy should feel that the teacher is at sea with his material. 

Every school should have a shop where manual projects, 
relating to all subjects, can be executed. In connection with 
various subjects, a problem may arise which can be met 
satisfactorily only by the refashioning of physical materials 
with tools. If there is no workshop available, the need must 
be passed by without in any satisfactory fashion being met. 
In connection with the study of the industrial topic, wheat, 
for example, the question came up as to how wheat can be 
graded. One of the boys had seen his mother sifting the 
flour and suggested that a sieve arrangement would be sat- 
isfactory. The boys secured various samples of wheat and 
placed wheat in a sieve with a fine mesh. They found that 
only the finest materials and undersized grains of wheat 
passed through. They next devised a sieve with a larger 
mesh, permitting the grains of wheat and materials of simi- 
lar size to pass through, but so that the larger foreign ma- 
terials, as pieces of wood, would remain in the sieve. After 
having placed the wheat in each of these sieves, they found 
that some oats grains remained with the good wheat. It 
was noted that the oats grain is longer and narrower than 
the wheat grain. A sieve with a long, narrow slit was de- 
vised through which the oats grains could be sifted, the wheat 
grains being retained in the sieve. Experimentally, there- 
fore, the boys arrived at almost the same kind of assorting 
device that is used commercially in the grading of grain. 
Had they been told how to grade the grain, they appreci- 
atively could have followed the explanations of another. The 
real educative development came when they felt the need of 
meeting the situation, and devised ways and means of doing 
to. 



Manual or Physical Projects 188 

In connection with a study of the Panama Canal, a ques- 
tion arose as to the nature of a lock. Diagrams and ex- 
planations helped but seemed inadequate in giving certain 
members the needed concepts. One of the boys suggested 
that a lock could be constructed in the workshop. The boys 
began to plan its construction. It was arranged to use the 
faucet of water to secure a stream, to construct with clay a 
small channel through which the water was to run, to build 
a dam across the stream except where the lock was to be 
located. By means of cardboards the upper and lower gates 
were constructed, and a toy boat was used for the demon- 
stration. While this laboratory expression work was being 
completed, one of the boys suggested that the same thing 
could be worked out with a small stream that flowed near the 
schoolhouse. Shovels were brought to school, a dam was 
constructed, and solid board gates were constructed to be 
placed at the upper and lower part of the lock. A small 
wooden boat was used for the demonstration and while the 
gates leaked, the fundamental principles of lock construction 
readily were grasped. How much deeper was the impression 
and the understanding of locks because of the physical proj- 
ect that was carried out in connection with the book 
work! 

The school training in manual projects and project ma- 
terials should enable the individual to continue to solve proj- 
ects m the after-school life. With the view of enabling the 
individual to continue to solve problems on his own initia- 
tive after he has left school, a considerable amount of train- 
ing in independent or semi-independent physical project 
work should be given or undertaken. It is a serious test of 
a school's efficiency with respect to the amount of physical 
project work that is being performed, but the crucial test 
comes when the child must meet situations in his vocation. 



184 The Project Method m Education 

However beautifully, under guidance, he may have executed 
projects, if he can not meet the practical situations of his 
occupation, the school work has broken down and has failed 
at the critical moment. A piece of work, crudely but hon- 
estly done, is preferable to an artistic production that rep- 
resents blind imitation. 

The need for manual projects is not so acute m schools 
where the boys and girls are from the farms. In schools 
serving rural districts there is less need of emphasizing 
manual projects, since the children find numerous opportu- 
nities and need for executing them in connection with the 
farm work. The primary work of the school is not to 
duplicate the work of the homes, but to supplement and to 
reinforce such work. In so far as school manual projects 
are emphasized, therefore, the purpose should be, either to 
permit the child to secure a much more comprehensive grasp 
of the world's activities, enabling him to understand the sig- 
nificance of the work of his own community to the rest of 
the world, or to enable the child to do his home project 
work more effectively. The emphasis shifts, therefore, to 
the extent that home physical projects are a satisfactory 
substitute for school physical projects, from projects to 
project material or project steps bearing upon the home 
projects. 

Some types of physical projects profitably may be car- 
ried on in rural schools. In the cities, school gardens are 
becoming an important aspect of education. The children 
not only are brought into close contact with plant forms, 
but particularly through a study of economic plants are 
brought into an appreciation of some phases of farm activ- 
ities. The same line of argument that justifies school gar- 
dens in the cities also justifies the introduction of manual 
training in the rural schools, but just as manual training 



Manual or Physical Projects 185 

relatively should be given more emphasis in the city, so 
school gardening should be given greater relative emphasis 
in the rural school. Numerous experiments relating to the 
selection of seeds, the use of fertilizers, and methods of 
cultivation can be carried on in the school garden or on 
the school farm. In the group project work much valu- 
able experience may be obtained for application in prac- 
tical individual work. The conditions will be placed under 
the direct supervision of the agricultural specialist, which 
will permit the close blending of theory and practice. If 
as nearly ideal conditions as are practicable can be estab- 
lished, the community will have an ideal toward which to 
work. 

The Department of Agriculture has found that the best 
way to raise the general level of intelligence, relating to 
farming activities, is to induce some farmer to practice the 
most up-to-date methods as an example to other farmers 
in the community. A progressive school garden or school 
farm may serve a broader purpose than merely to assist the 
students who directly are concerned, for the whole commu- 
nity by observation may profit therefrom. Most farmers 
regard school work, however, as impracticable in its appli- 
cation to regular farm practice. Farm projects supple- 
menting the school work, therefore, are being more and 
more emphasized. 

Home project work has been established on an important 
scale in Massachusetts. According to the Massachusetts 
home project plan all farming activities may be classified 
as projects. "A farming project is a thing to be done on 
a farm. The thing done may contribute some element of 
improvement about the farm — as constructing a concrete 
walk leading to the front door, planting and nurturing 
shade trees, making and maintaining an attractive lawn. The 



186 The Project Method m Education 

thing done may be of an experimental nature 1 — as the plant- 
ing of an untried variety of fruit, the feeding of an untried 
ration, the testing of an untried spraying mixture, or the 
testing of one or another of much advertised roofing 
materials. Finally, the thing done may be of a productive 
nature, as the growing of a crop of clover or alfalfa; the 
growing of a field of potatoes ; the growing of a crop of 
silage corn, or the production of eggs for the market. A 
farming project is, further, something to be done on a farm 
which involves a limited and definite amount of equipment, 
materials, and time, and which is directed toward the ac- 
complishment of a specific and valuable result. 

"Finally, a farming project, as the term is here used, is a 
thing to be done on a farm which, in the preparation for 
doing it and in the carrying of it out to a successful result, 
involves a thoroughgoing educational process. The im- 
provement project of constructing a concrete walk to the 
front door might involve a study of the nature of cement ; its 
action on sand, gravel, and broken stone; its resistant qual- 
ities to the weather; the seasons in which it might be used; 
its cost as compared with other materials, such as boards, 
plank, tar, brick, flagging, and asphalt; the mathematical 
determination of proportions of sand, cement, and stone to 
be used ; the geometrical determination of the sections into 
which it should be divided and whether it should be crowned 
or flat; the geographical sources of the raw material and 
the commercial conditions for purchasing the cement. The 
experimental project of planting an untried variety of fruit 
might involve a study of the probable adaptability of the 
variety selected to the soil of the farm, the climate of the 
locality, and the market demands within reach of the farm. 
The productive project of growing a crop of clover might 
involve a study of the various varieties of clover; the com- 



Manual or Physical Projects 187 

parative adaptability of those varieties to the given field 
on which the crop must be grown and to the climate of the 
locality; the most reliable places for the purchase of seed; 
the best time for seeding; the best time for cutting; the best 
methods of curing and storing; the mathematical calcula- 
tion as to the saving in cost of feeding stuffs which the crop 
would afford; the chemical elements it would furnish in the 
ration, and the beneficial chemical, biological and mechanical 
effects on the soil in which it would be grown." (Stimson, 
N. W., Massachusetts Home Project Plan of Vocational 
Agricultural Education, Government Printing Office, Bulle- 
tin 579, 1914, pp. 10-14.) 

Home project work may be carried on under the super- 
vision of a skilled teacher. In the project work of agricul- 
tural schools, home projects have been found preferable, in 
general, to school projects. Arrangements are made by 
means of which the boy is to execute a definite piece of work 
under natural farming conditions. The work may consist 
of the production of an acre of some field crop, as corn, or 
wheat, of the care of a vegetable garden, of the care of a 
certain number of cows, of the care of poultry, etc. The 
project for the girl may concern the keeping of her room, 
or the doing of definite tasks in the kitchen, or caring for 
poultry, etc. In each case, the students have a definite re- 
sponsibility, and directly are interested in the commercial 
side of the situation. The agricultural supervisor makes 
frequent trips to the farm to advise the students. The school 
work consists in part of a study of project material, bear- 
ing on the home projects. Not only are the boys and girls 
maximally benefited and interested as a result of this cor- 
relation of home and school work, but the parents in many 
instances are influenced to improve their methods. Accord- 
ing to an observer, "In one case a boy had as his Home 



188 The Project Method in Education 

Project six rows of potatoes in his father's potato field. 
The father sprayed the potatoes with arsenate of lead, which 
protected them from insects, but arsenate of lead does not 
protect from blight. The boy learned this fact at school, 
and, coming home, asked permission to make enough Bor- 
deaux mixture to spray his own Home Project, and the 
father assented. In the fall the boy's potato vines were 
flourishing, the father's potato vines were dead. The next 
spring the father told the boy to prepare the necessary 
amount of Bordeaux mixture for the protection of the next 
year's crop, and bought a barrel and sprayer. ... I am 
not so much interested in what these boys and girls are doing 
for the soil as I am with what the soil is doing for these boys 
and girls. This form of agricultural education seems to me 
to throw no little light on some of the perplexing problems 
of our American life. It is a great unifier. It brings the 
school and the home together; the teacher and the parents 
together ; education and life together ; and, what is perhaps 
best of all, fulfills the promise of the Hebrew prophet and 
turns the hearts of the fathers to the children and the hearts 
of the children to the fathers." ( Editorial. Outlook, July 
25, 1917.) 

Classified according to accomplishment, according to the 
above article, there are three groups of workers that may be 
recognized. If the home project plan is emphasized, it is 
helpful in developing the pupils according to capacities, abil- - 
ities, and inclinations. In spite of the fact that equal oppor- 
tunity may be given all pupils, the three classes will stand 
out fairly prominently. The three classes are as follows: 
(a) there are pupils who can acquire a large amount of 
manual skill, but who always will depend upon others for 
directions; (b) there are pupils who, in addition to the ac- 
quisition of manual skill, can master and apply principles, 



Manual or Physical Projects 189 

who can command and execute in their particular vocation. 
Such students eventually, not only will be able to manage 
their own farms, but will employ many from class one to as- 
sist in farm activities; (c) there are pupils who can acquire 
manual skill, who can plan and execute their own work, but 
who, in addition, will acquire a knowledge of the relative 
importance of their own work in relation to the work of the 
world, and who, because of the breadth of knowledge re- 
ceived, will exercise leadership over both class one and class 
two. There are no sharp lines which separate these three 
classes of pupils or adults, but the three readily can be rec- 
ognized in every community. 

The schools through home projects are coming into effec- 
tive relations with out-of-school life. From the preceding 
illustrations it will be seen that through the home-project 
work, under the supervision of the schools, the pupils are 
encouraged to carry on economic work which carries with it 
the possibility of either gain or loss. The unit of activity 
is carried on with a natural setting. The pupil has a com- 
bination of influences that tends to make him very energetic 
in working out his project. The school lends a helping hand, 
not only in supervising the home project, but also by offering 
the kind of project material at school that will help the boy 
in working out his individual physical project. As a result 
the taxpayers, appreciating the value of the school, are 
much less reluctant to support the school, while the school 
in an efficient fashion is serving the community and directly 
preparing the students for future intelligent participation in 
agricultural activities upon a more comprehensive scale. 

The correlation of school physical projects and school 
projects material with other human activities rapidly is mak- 
ing the school the most prized of institutions. The schools 
are ceasing to attempt to teach only certain formal, ap- 



190 The Project Method m Education 

proved materials, but have taken an active part in aiding 
society to meet its problems, and to plan wisely for the 
future. In many instances, not only children, but the adults 
of the community as well, can go to the public schools for 
assistance to help them in solving their physical projects. 
Schools, at the expense of the district, are being provided 
for adults. Equipment is being placed in the schools so that 
projects can be worked out in the classroom, in the labo- 
ratory, or on the school ground. The school is becoming the 
great tool of society whereby both adults and children can 
find assistance in the realization of their purposes, as well as 
inspiration for the adoption of worth-while purposes. With 
the schools serving mankind so effectively, he would be rash 
indeed who would attempt to put a limit upon their future 
usefulness and significance. 

Problems 

1. What is the relation of project material to projects? 

2. Is there a real or only an arbitrary distinction between 
manual and mental projects? 

3. Give one illustration from your own experience of (a) 
a group project, (b) an individual project, (c) a 
home project, and (d) a school project. 

4. What is the relative importance of manual projects 
in the lower grades as compared with the upper grades? 

5. To what extent and for what purpose should city 
projects be introduced into country schools, and vice 
versa? 

6. Illustrate how a concept may be built up or enriched as 
a result of a manual project. 

7. What should be the relative emphasis of discovery and 
imitation as the child works on his manual project? 



Manual or Physical Projects 191 

8. What should be the nature of a shop for the working 
out of manual projects that come up in the various 
subjects? Give an illustration of how each subject 
could be enriched through shop work. 

9. What should be the nature of the manual projects in 
the schools in order that the students may be maxi- 
mally efficient in executing physical projects in the 
after-school days? 

10. In what respects should physical projects of city 
schools differ from physical projects of country 
schools? 

11. Mention various ways that the schools, through physi- 
cal projects, are coming into more vital touch with the 
life of the community. 

12. Picture a school in which physical projects are used 
in an ideal manner. 



CHAPTER XII 

MENTAL PROJECTS NOT INVOLVING MANUAL ACTIVITY 

A project may involve the interpretation of a situation 
without a dominant utilization of manual activities. The 
mental processes involved in the grappling with a mental 
project are similar to the mental processes involved in a 
physical project, except that manual activities resulting in 
concrete, objective accomplishment are not dominantly pres- 
ent. As a partial substitute for this lack of manual expres- 
sion, however, there are other forms of muscular reactions 
accompanying the thinking processes. A mental project is 
vital in influencing behavior, since the conclusions reached 
may have important consequences in their applications to 
projects, resulting in concrete achievement, or resulting in 
social changes. With the help of imagery, past experiences 
and reassociations of ideas may be utilized in "thinking 
through" unit situations. 

Projects may involve rational thinking apart from direct 
contact with concrete materials. In a physical project of 
manual activity, concrete materials are emphasized through- 
out the project. Concrete materials afford the opportunity 
for the project, permit the carrying out of the project, and 
in a refashioned form are the objective embodiment of the 
completed project. The acquirement of manual skill as well 
as knowledge is significant in a physical project. In some 
projects concrete materials may be present, whether ob- 
servational or representative, and may be important in help- 

192 



Mental Projects Not Involving Manual Activity 193 

ing the individual to understand a particular part of his 
project, but the materials are used for the purpose of under- 
standing, or of illustrating, and are not refashioned or re- 
organized as an aspect of the project. Materials thus used 
may be, and probably are, aspects of physical projects for 
the one who made them, but are mere incidents in the inter- 
pretation of mental projects. The adequately trained mind, 
in many instances, can make satisfactory use of concrete ma- 
terials indirectly through the exercise of memory, or through 
the ability of the mind to image a concrete thing that never 
has been experienced directly as a unit. A considerable 
amount of freedom from dependence upon direct observa- 
tional and representative material is necessary for an eco- 
nomical mastery of projects, not resulting in concrete, ob- 
jective achievements. 

Mental projects fundamentally are dependent upon the 
"free ideas" of man. A project of any class requires the 
use of "free ideas," but the mental project is particularly 
exacting in this respect. In the physical project the direct 
relations of the individual, through manual activities, with 
materials, constantly are stimulative and suggestive, and 
make the individual vitally conscious of the various steps 
of the project. In the mental project there is no such di- 
rectly stimulating relation. The individual, however, inevit- 
ably will deal with the results of physical projects, and to 
the extent that these projects have become a part of his very 
nature, they will function vitally through imagery in help- 
ing to work out the mental projects. The greater the 
number of interpreted experiences that the individual has 
had with his physical and social environment, the more 
satisfactorily and comprehensively, other conditions being 
equal, can he grasp mental projects. The mind of man 
can recall, in imagery, materials, and also can recombine the 



194 The Project Method m Education 

elements with which he is familiar, in various new ways, re- 
lating the various concepts established in ways that ap- 
peal to him as desirable. Through the utilization of prin- 
ciples, facts, and constructive imagery, the individual may 
consider the effects of various relations, and on the basis of 
apparent or real values, think the situation through to his 
qwn satisfaction. 

Mental projects may have a definite relation to sub- 
sequent physical projects. Just as the execution of mental 
projects necessarily involves the utilization of preceding 
physical projects, so the solution of physical projects, with 
the increasing intelligence of the individual, may be con- 
ditioned by a mental project, through which the physical 
project is "thought through" before it is undertaken. The 
"thinking through" of a project, before manual construc- 
tion work is attempted, frequently will effect an economy in 
the physical project, and will eliminate many difficulties and 
mistakes that might be made if the interpretation of each 
step were dependent upon the actual concrete completion 
of the preceding steps. Through the mental project the suc- 
ceeding steps and their significance in relation can be im- 
aged in such a way as to permit the thinking through of the 
project, step by step, to the result. The quality of the suc- 
ceeding physical project is influenced by the extent to which, 
in spite of the well-thought-out situation, new problems arise, 
and successfully are interpreted. 

Mental projects may be highly individualist c or highly 
social in character. Many problems arise in life the solution 
of which affects directly the welfare of the individual. There 
are economic problems of general significance, and economic 
problems of specific interest; religious problems of general 
significance, and religious problems of specific interest; 
moral problems of general significance, and moral problems 



Mental Projects Not Involving Manual Activity 195 

of specific interest ; intellectual problems of general signifi- 
cance and intellectual problems of specific interest; physical 
problems of general significance and physical problems of 
specific significance. On the one hand, the person is ask- 
ing himself the method of procedure that seems best for him- 
self ; on the other hand the person is seeking to ascertain the 
method of procedure that best will subserve the interests of 
the social group. There is no hard and fast boundary line 
between these two viewpoints, but one factor or the other 
generally dominates a situation. 

The boy may seek to design a plan by means of which he 
can construct a kite, or he may consider suggestion after 
suggestion concerning the most desirable way of securing 
some article of clothing, or he may be confronted with a situ- 
ation involving possibilities of moral or immoral conduct. 
In each case, the "thinking through" of the various possible 
acts, and the assumption of the attitude to be taken, is in 
response to personal needs, whether physical, mental, moral 
or religious, that the boy is seeking to satisfy. A still higher 
type of mental project is the project which ordinarily does 
not result in a demonstrable succeeding physical project. 
The evolution of religions, for example, may be considered 
in a painstaking fashion, and as a result of this study the 
individual may come to the conclusion that every religion has 
served an important purpose in the world, that religions 
have been advancing from growth to growth as humanity » 
has advanced, but that the religion which most nearly has 
reached perfection in meeting the needs of humanity is the 
Christian religion. On the basis of this analysis the in- 
dividual may individualize and consider that the Christian 
religion meets his own inner needs more nearly satisfying 
than any other religion, and consequently may feel not only 
that the Christian religion is good for the world in general, 



196 The Project Method m Education 

but is vital for himself in particular. The conclusions will 
function in social and individual behavior. 

There are numerous mental projects, highly social in 
character, that the members of a democracy are called 
upon to solve. If a mayor of a city betrays the trust of the 
people, what action should be taken? Should intoxicating 
liquor be regulated or prohibited? Should woman suffrage 
be adopted? Should the president be elected directly by 
popular vote? Should there be segregation of vice? Should 
Sunday work be prohibited? Should a workingman's com- 
pensation act be passed in every state? Numerous problems 
that concern the welfare of the social group must be decided. 
In each case an intelligent disposal of the problem involves 
a careful weighing of the advantages and disadvantages of 
each possible method of procedure, before coming to a final 
decision. The physical project, following upon the mental 
project, may be delegated to some representative member of 
society, as, for example, when society decrees that a man 
shall be hanged. The jailor may have the physical project of 
preparing the scaffold, and of carrying out the sentence. 

Mental projects are significant in influencing behavior. 
The interpretation of any mental project is affected, often 
prejudiced by, the previous experiences, as well as instinctive 
tendencies, of the individual. So directly does the past life 
of an individual bear upon his probable conclusions and 
actions concerning a problem that confronts him that it fre- 
quently has been said that the conclusions of another can be 
anticipated if his past is known. Since the individual has 
the ability to think in terms of free ideas, however, the past 
does not irrevocably determine the course of action. Just 
as behavior, with respect to a mental project, is influenced 
by the past, so any particular mental project, once mastered, 
is significant in influencing the behavior of the individual 



Mental Projects Not Involving Manual Activity 197 

with respect to all future situations upon which the mental 
project has a bearing. 

AU subjects of the curriculum are not of equal value in fur- 
nishing opportunity for mental project work. Certain sub- 
jects of the curriculum, as manual training and agriculture, 
are rich in physical project possibilities. Other subjects, 
as history, civics, and geography, are dominantly signifi- 
cant from the standpoint of the mental projects which they 
afford. While, in general, the foregoing statements are true, 
it should be noted that every subject offers within itself the 
opportunity either in a major or minor way of emphasizing 
every type of project. It would be an unwise distortion of 
subject matter, however, to attempt to teach a subject that 
offers dominantly physical project opportunities, through 
mental projects, or vice versa. The subjects should be made 
to supplement each other in securing the advantages that 
may come to the child from considering both types of 
projects. 

Observational, representative, and imaginary materials 
may be involved. In the local environment are many ma- 
terials that can be observed directly as a basis for the mental 
processes, e.g., topographic features and processes. Many 
materials, far away, or for some other reason inaccessible, 
must be approached through representations, e.g., maps, 
globes, pictures. In the absence of these materials, ob- 
servational and representative, or supplementary to them, 
the individual may reconstruct in imagery the materials de- 
sired. General abstract ideas, finally, may enter in an im- 
portant way into the more advanced stages of thinking. 

A worthy purpose is desirable. In too many instances, 
unfortunately, there is a tendency for an individual to adopt 
some prejudiced stand concerning a matter of policy, on the 
basis of personal interests, later on to consider in detail the 



198 The Project Method m Education 

materials of the project merely from the standpoint of jus- 
tifying the stand taken. This method of procedure is to be 
differentiated from an inference, tentatively made, to be 
rejected, modified, or accepted later, on the basis of a care- 
ful consideration of all factors concerned. If a person's life 
is well ordered he will try to adopt worthy purposes in all 
of his activities. If worthy purposes are controlling fac- 
tors, nothing less than an absolutely impartial consideration 
of the whole situation will satisfy, and nothing less than 
strict adherence as a conclusion to the demands of truth will 
be adopted. 

Mental projects are short-cuts in learning. If it were 
necessary to recapitulate all the racial experiences through 
direct contact with the environment, through trial, the social 
accumulation of knowledge is so abundant that progress 
could be made very slowly if at all beyond a certain point. 
The ability to profit by one another's experiences would be 
practically nil. If the human race is to make substantial 
progress beyond the animal plane of existence, since most 
of the inheritance of experience must be social, a short-cut 
in education is necessary. The ability to interpret a type 
situation is desirable, but man also can analyze a situation 
into its various parts in such a way as to adopt principles 
that can be applied to numerous other situations. In a 
situation never before experienced as a unit, man can think 
abstractly as well as concretely. The mental execution of 
a plan may proceed with greater rapidity, and with less 
probability of eventual material loss than if dependence on 
physical projects were absolute. In mental projects many 
mistakes are eliminated, which, if made in actual experience, 
and then corrected, would be very costly. By anticipating 
the effects of certain policies, therefore, individuals and 
groups of individuals can consciously plan for the future, 
and can accelerate the evolution of the human race. 



Mental Projects Not Involving Manual Activity 199 

Successful mental project teaching requires a knowledge 
of the relations of a mental project to physical projects 
and other mental projects. The teacher should grasp a 
project as a unit, but she should understand the proper 
relations of projects to each other. The results secured 
from the interpretation of one project may have a vital re- 
lation to the succeeding projects, whether these projects are 
physical or dominantly mental. The projects should be of 
such a nature that succeeding projects will make use of 
certain materials a sufficient number of times to secure the 
needed skill and knowledge. The materials may be con- 
centrated in the interpretation of a small project, but with a 
shift in viewpoint the teacher should understand the pos- 
sible use not only of the same materials, but of the results 
of project studies in the solution of more comprehensive 
projects. Unless this interrelationship and repetitive use 
for different purposes clearly is seen, the most effective re- 
sults cannot be secured. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE PROJECT METHOD IN HISTORY 

History teaches the progress of man. History includes 
all happenings of the past. Every subject has its historical 
side. According to the idea of history that prevails in our 
schoolrooms, history largely is concerned with the past 
activities of man. Scientific studies concerning human his- 
tory indicate that man has been upon the earth for thou- 
sands of years, how long, no one can say, for the records 
that man has left become more and more meager, less and 
less decipherable, as we proceed farther and farther into 
the past. The oldest records suggest a past of unknown 
duration. The beginnings of man, consequently, are un- 
certain. A study of history indicates that there have been 
no abrupt general catastrophes or overturnings in the ad- 
vancement of man, but that the nature of the human institu- 
tions of any period can be interpreted in terms of past 
activities, from which they have been evolved. The institu- 
tions gradually are changing. Marked progress has been 
made since man has discovered that he consciously can plan 
to accelerate his evolution. It seems hardly probable that 
"history repeats itself," but that man, although vacillating, 
and undergoing temporary backsets, is advancing to higher 
planes of living. Continuity of activities, change, and ad- 
vancement, in large part purposely planned, are some of the 
important lessons that history has to teach. 

History in the schools should be less provincial. The 

200 



The Project Method in History 201 

field of history is so broad that a lifetime is inadequate to 
make more than a brief study of its more important phases. 
It becomes necessary, therefore, to adopt some standard 
of selection for grade work, since history is only one of 
numerous subjects, through the study of which the child 
endeavors to solve the riddle of life. For many years after 
the United States became a nation it was occupying its ter- 
ritories, developing its resources, and solving its domestic 
problems. It had removed itself from European domination 
by resort to arms. There was no thought of interfering with 
affairs in Europe; on the other hand, it was expected that 
others would not interfere with our domestic policies. 

Rapidly the United States became a great and powerful 
nation. While it was at work settling its internal problems, 
transporting and communicating facilities were being im- 
proved, commercial relations with other countries rapidly 
were growing, and America began to become more and more 
interested in world affairs and in world politics. The idea 
that no nation has a right or the ability, under modern con- 
ditions, to live unto itself alone, gradually was gaining 
ground. An unprecedented situation, such as the World 
War, was necessary to bring the idea fully to the front. 
We have now come to see that even the internal affairs of 
another nation concern us insofar as the domestic policies 
are related to extra-political areas. This may be illustrated 
by the recent suggestion of the British Government that the 
United States should guarantee any losses that British cap- 
italists may suffer as a result of the prohibition amendment. 

It was natural, during the time that we primarily were 
concerned with domestic problems, that we should have 
adopted the idea that American History should be taught 
in the grades. To a slight extent the European background 
to American History was emphasized, but the fundamental 



202 The Project Method m Education 

purpose was to acquaint the child with the wonderful past of 
his own country. No one would advocate that the teach- 
ing of American History should be slighted under the 
changed conditions, but the realization that the world has 
become one small family, with intricate relationships and 
dependencies established among its various parts, has 
brought clearly to the front the necessity of teaching the 
child not only American History, but the significance of 
American History in its broad relationships to World His- 
tory. Local history or state history never was considered 
a sufficiently comprehensive study for the child ; national his- 
tory, more decidedly than ever, should point in the direc- 
tion of international history. Provincialism gave place to 
nationalism; nationalism is pointing in the direction of in- 
ternationalism. 

School history should emphasize the present rather than 
the past. Historians, in defining their subject, have not been 
inclined to regard the present as a part of history. The 
present, they say, is not sufficiently removed from present- 
day prejudices, and the activities are insufficiently outlined 
for an impartial unbiased account to be made. Until re- 
cently very seldom was the chronological, sequential account 
of history brought up to date. While history was taught 
primarily with the idea of helping the child to live in the 
present, a serious gap was left between the past and present, 
with little or no attempt to bridge it. The child was left to 
bridge this chasm in his own way, the result being that few 
vital relations were established. More and more insistently 
has the idea become extant that, whatever the history of the 
historian may be, the history of our public schools should 
be directly related to the present. It is being urged still 
further that the chief business of the public schools is to 
acquaint the children with the present physical and social 



The Project Method m History 203 

environment, and their responsibilities and opportunities 
therein, and that, therefore, all historical material that does 
not assist the child directly in interpreting the presentshould 
be rigorously excluded. » Professor Jaeger, in discussing this 
very point, presents the historian's point of view as follows : 
"A problem that is whimsically characteristic of our age is 
raised by the latest question, Should history be begun at its 
beginning or its end? The first man to conceive and ex- 
press the bold idea that historical instruction should begin 
at the present moment or the immediate past and work 
backwards to primitive times was d'Alembert, as I learn 
from Mahrenholz. In our days, when we are reforming 
everything on earth except ourselves, this idea has also 
aroused some transitory attention, but has disappeared, 
leaving its mark only in certain textbooks, monstrosities of 
historical teaching. This much is known to every one, as is 
also the fact that an antiquarian scholar of importance half 
adopted this idea, and seized the opportunity of speaking 
with greater or less profundity as an amateur upon histori- 
cal teaching; he merely succeeded in proving that any one at 
the present, with a little reputation, can write upon matters 
of which he knows absolutely nothing, and find readers, and 
even professional experts, to take him seriously, to discuss 
his ideas, and thus to give a certain importance to mere 
amateurism." (Jaeger. The Teaching of History, p. 33.) 
McMurry brings us a little nearer to the modern view- 
point: "As we approach the more recent topics of our his- 
tory, the large and complex scale of events increases, and, 
besides, many of these topics are still in the region of con- 
troversy and have not fallen into the clear perspective of 
history. Not a few of the best teachers have avoided the 
teaching of nineteenth-century history because of this com- 
plexity and unsettled aspect of recent politics. On the other 



204 The Project Method m Education 

hand, one of the chief purposes of history and school studies 
generally is to bring the children somewhere near to our 
modern problems and into sympathy with present social 
and economic life." (McMurry. Special Method in History, 
p. 182.) 

It is befitting that trained historians shall attempt sharply 
to delimit their fields. The educator, however, primarily is 
interested in the child. He conceives the subject matter, 
not as an end, but as a means to an end. In view of the 
enlarged and intensified demands made upon us in connection 
with the World War, the necessity of concentrating upon 
work that will enable the pupils to interpret the present is 
greater than ever. Not only do we no longer consider it 
ignorant for a person to insist that history should have its 
beginnings in the present, no longer do we consider that the 
study of history should bring the children somewhere near 
to our modern problems, but we have adopted the policy, in 
spirit at least, of bringing the child into contact with pres- 
ent-day situations, and then of using the past, insofar as the 
historical perspective is necessary, in interpreting the present 
situations. 

The World War, consequently, has accelerated movements 
that already were in progress, namely: (1) The broadening 
interests of Americans, and the need of considering present 
events with a broader historical perspective, and (2) the 
critical consideration of historical material in the light of 
the direct bearings it has upon present-day affairs. It is 
not insignificant that these changes are in the direction of 
permitting more effective motivation in the history work 
than ever was possible under previous conditions. 

The projects of history are invaluable as an aspect of 
education. The projects of history are of value because of 
the direct assistance that they offer to an individual, but 



The Project Method m History 205 

the primary value is in the understanding of social condi- 
tions, so that the student realizes the significance of the in- 
stitutions of society, and is prepared intelligently to advance 
the interests of society in general. Projects are of value 
because of the inspiration and stimulation for worthy activi- 
ties that may be developed, although, to be sure, the char- 
acter of attitudes thus formed depends to a considerable ex- 
tent upon the particular quality and order of subject mat- 
ter, the organization of material and the emphasis. 

There are three types of projects that dominate: (a) 
Reading history for enjoyment. In the field of history, 
there are many narratives that appeal because of their in- 
herent interest. There are people who secure great pleasure 
from reading certain aspects of history. Some people may 
prefer biographies of military men, or military events, or 
political men and political events, or captains of industry 
and industrial events, or men of science and scientific events, 
etc. Some few people may find enjoyment in almost any 
phase of history. Such people read not to remember, but 
merely to experience the pleasurable feeling and satisfac- 
tion that come from the doing. Some incidents necessarily 
will be remembered but the project is realized and can be 
measured not in terms of permanent acquisitions of knowl- 
edge, but in terms of the satisfaction, more or less temporary, 
that was received while the person was living eagerly in the 
past. The response involved primarily is an emotional re- 
sponse. If such a person is asked, "What have you been 
doing?" he will say, "I have been reading history." If the 
question is given, "What have you been reading about?" the 
response may be, "I was reading something about the Civil 
War. I don't remember much about it, but I had a very pleas- 
ant time while I was reading." "Didn't you feel lonesome?" 
"Not at all; the incidents that I was reliving held my at- 



206 The Project Method m Education 

tention to such an extent that I had no time to be lone- 
some." This type of work satisfies instinctive and created 
needs of man, and, although the results are more elusive than 
results when acquisition of knowledge is the primary aim, 
there is an undoubted gain to the individual if his emotional 
response to situations has been effected. The emotional at- 
titude may, or may not, be according to modern demands, 
which suggests the need of having the material adjusted to 
the reader in such a way that inimical social attitudes will 
be inhibited and desirable ones shall be encouraged. The 
reading of the activities of pirates, in and of itself, is harm- 
less, but if the pupil develops an attitude that causes him to 
sympathize with wrongdoers, and to want to be a wrong- 
doer himself, then, although the project has been a success, 
the development of the pupil has been along undesirable 
lines. If the pupil reads about pirates and develops an atti- 
tude that causes him to detest such activities, the project 
likewise has been successful, but the enlarged world of the 
child will result in social betterment. If the pupil makes a 
study of the life of George Washington, or Abraham Lin- 
coln, and engages in an emotional reaction that approves of 
their moral fibre to the extent that he also wishes to possess 
the same type of moral fibre, the results are desirable, but if 
the pupil assumes a satirical attitude toward their moral 
fibre, or agrees with their viewpoint mechanically and not as 
a part of his very nature, even the study of good deeds may 
result in untoward social results. 

Project work of the emotions, therefore, involves a con- 
sideration of both desirable and undesirable types of activi- 
ties, and the setting up of attitudes that countenance the 
desirable, and despise the undesirable. To a person pri- 
marily concerned with an unthinking, unreasoning emotional 
response, the particular way that the narrative is told is of 



The Project Method in History 207 

profound significance in bringing about the desired results. 

(b) History projects may be primarily informational in 
character. Many people read history in order to secure in- 
formation. In current events, or in ordinary conversation, 
or at some gathering, suggestions may be given that will 
cause a person to want to know the exact facts with respect 
to some incident of the past. The incident will be studied in 
order that the information thus secured may be used, or in 
order that the mental need may be met. There are other 
people who are interested in reading incidents of the past 
from an informational standpoint, because they want to be 
prepared for possible situations involving the information, 
or because they feel the need of a cultured person being in- 
formed concerning the past. 

Diverse motives may impell the individual to acquire in- 
formation bearing on the past, but whatever the motive in- 
volved, the result is the enlargement of the personal world 
because of the added fund of information secured. Some 
plans of acquiring information may involve the accumu- 
lation of a great deal of historical material that has no par- 
ticular value in dealing with present situations. The diverse 
amount of material available, and the numerous motives that 
induce man to gather and store facts in his mind, suggest 
that considerable care should be exercised in getting the 
student to adopt motives and to select material of such a 
nature that a maximum of usable knowledge will be secured. 

(c) Another type of project is the project primarily in- 
volving interpretative problems. The above types of proj- 
ects recognized in relation to historic materials certainly 
should be given attention in school work, but a very impor- 
tant type of project is the project that involves an inter- 
pretative problem. The project problem may (1) function 
in the present, being illuminated by the past, (2) may func- 



208 The Project Method m Education 

tion in the past, being illuminated by the present, (3) may 
function in the past, being illuminated by the past, (4) may 
function in the present, being illuminated by the present, or 
(5) may function in the future, being illuminated by the past, 
the present, or future conditions. 

Different individuals may be interested in various types 
of project problems. The purposeful establishment of inter- 
pretative problematical situations in history is of compara- 
tively recent origin. The aim of American History, in times 
past, apparently has been to give the American viewpoint 
with respect to the chronological development of our coun- 
try. The attitude assumed by text book writers has been 
that every event should emphasize the right position of the 
United States and the wrong position of any group opposed. 
As long as this attitude has prevailed, the teaching by in- 
terpretative problems in history has been at a serious disad- 
vantage. As long as children are to accept the statements 
of others that one side was right because of certain situa- 
tions and the other side was wrong, because of certain atti- 
tudes, the project of information is bound to be dominant. 
It is fair to assume that every controversy, whether between 
individuals, or between groups of individuals, or between 
governments, is the result of an honest difference of view- 
point and ideals. If the differences cannot be settled amica- 
bly, and war results, it is fair to assume that the situation 
has in it elements in favor of both viewpoints. If the mate- 
rial, in advance, has been studied, and arranged so that the 
problem not only is stated, but also is worked out, and the 
conclusion also stated, then, while the material is arranged 
in problematical form, the problem itself is not a real inter- 
pretative problem to the individual studying the article. It 
was a project-problem to the author of the article, and the 
child merely memorizes, and only partially appreciates. 



The Project Method m History 209 

If it is desirable thus to organize the material in order 
that the child will be prejudiced in favor of a particular 
conclusion, such a method of procedure can be justified. The 
implication involved, however, is that the history of our 
country contains some incidents that, if impartially pre- 
sented, would leave the child unpatriotic and ashamed of 
his country's past. If our country, indeed, has such a rec- 
ord, the truth is preferable to the perpetration of a lie. If 
the problem must be stated in the textbook so as to justify 
the American viewpoint alone in the United States and so 
as to justify the foreign viewpoint alone in some other 
country, then false standards are being set up in both coun- 
tries. Truthfulness dealing with the past will help the 
present generation to see the errors and the results of the 
errors, and will permit them to direct the course for the 
future with greater probability of justice. 

Actual project-problem solving involves the unprejudi- 
cial consideration of the varying viewpoints, their compari- 
son, the forming of judgments, and in the light of both 
sides of the problem, a conclusion. It will not lessen the 
patriotism of an individual to know that the social prob- 
lems are very complex in nature, and that each side may 
have certain aspects of the situation in its favor, that in 
controversies neither side, generally speaking, wholly is 
right, but that one viewpoint has favorable points, which, 
because of number or weight, makes it the more desirable 
policy to espouse. In the light of present policies, every 
fundamental activity in United States history may be studied 
without fear of the consequences. The pupil, therefore, 
should be presented with the varying viewpoints, and should 
be permitted to come to his own conclusions. 

In a recent book on the teaching of history the impor- 
tance of problems is recognized in the following words : "An 



810 The Project Method m Education 

interesting way of teaching history material in the higher 
grades is the 'problem' method of arranging the work to be 
studied. 

"The subject matter of the lesson is considered under the 
form of some question whose answer is to be found in the 
text book. For example, instead of treating the topics which 
include the French and Indian War as mere facts, the gen- 
eral problem stated for the class to solve is, 'Why did France 
lose her possessions in America?' or 'Why did England win 
the struggle for the American continent?' All events that 
follow one another in this connection are related to the ques- 
tion and are part of the solution. If the lesson be on the 
Revolutionary period, such a problem may be stated as, 
The Burgoyne campaign is considered the most decisive in 
the war. Is this true?' The recitation must answer the 
question and the interest of the class is aroused in discussing 
the various phases of the story. 

"Much American history material may be taught in prob- 
lem form, and the children grow keen in challenging general 
statements and tracing out the connection of events that re- 
late to the question. The mere statement of a fact in ques- 
tion form is not necessarily a problem. The real problem 
must involve an opportunity for doubt and discussion and 
should include several minor topics. To ask a class, 'What 
are the beliefs of the Republican Party about the tariff?' 
is not a problem. It is an ordinary class question; but to 
put such a query to a class as, 'Why have the two great 
political parties in the United States always differed about 
the tariff?' is a topic which would result in an interesting 
lesson on that rather difficult subject for children to grasp, 
the tariff question, and the class work could involve both 
past and present history in its treatment. The use of the 
problem topic is merely another form of the topical 



The Project Method m History 211 

recitation and makes for variety and mental development. 

"After reading the text book in a study recitation, the 
children themselves are often able to state the problem to be 
solved for the next day's lesson." (Kendall & Stryker. His- 
tory in the Elementary School, 64-66.) 

The various types of projects are not sJiarply differen- 
tiated. It is not to be understood that there are sharp 
boundary lines among the various classes of projects. The 
type of project in each case has been designated by the 
dominant characteristic. Each of the types involves aspects 
of the other types. In general, however, the order of em- 
phasis of these classes in grade work, demanded in the light 
of child psychology, is that the projects of enjoyment and 
information shall be emphasized in the lower grades, with a 
gradually increasing emphasis upon interpretative problems 
of greater and greater complexity and difficulty. 

The following set of problems, dealing with modern day 
affairs, under adequate motivation, may become project- 
problems. While it is desirable that every teacher should 
train herself in the formulation of desirable problems, it 
would be unfortunate if the work were organized about prob- 
lems which arbitrarily are to be studied. The objective 
organization of material should not dominate, but the prob- 
lems arising should be problems that the children actually 
feel the need of solving. Regarded in this light, there may 
be a marked difference between a type set of problems that 
would be satisfactory, if properly motivated, and a set that 
actually is worked out by a class, but a preliminary type 
set is of considerable value to a teacher in permitting her 
to know whether the work essentially is being covered for her 
grade. It is to be expected that pupils, so far as possible, 
should lead in the formulation of problems and that, only 
as a last resort, should the teacher lead the pupils. 



212 The Project Method in Education 

1. What were the conditions that made it necessary for 
the United States to enter the World War? 

2. How do the causes of this war differ from the causes 
of all other wars in which the United States has en- 
gaged ? 

3. Has the war, thus far, been in favor of the United 
States and its allies, or in favor of the Central Powers? 

4. With the nations of the world in their present alliances, 
what must be the outcome of the war? Explain in de- 
tail. 

5. Historically considered, does it seem inevitable that a 
nation, victorious in the end, must have its dark as 
well as its bright days? 

6. Is history helpful in enabling us to draw conclusions 
as to when the turning point of the war probably has 
been reached? 

7. Have geographic factors functioned in this war in a 
similar way as in preceding wars? 

8. In what ways is it probable that the results of this war 
will differ from or be similar to the results of all pre- 
ceding wars of the United States? 

9. Are wars probable as long as the earth is inhabited 
or is this war the forerunner of universal and perpetual 
peace among men? 

10. In the long run, are wars harmful or beneficial to the 
countries concerned? 

11. Is the internationalization of peoples desirable? 

12. Is the present war a war of nations rather than a war 
of armies to any greater degree than the previous wars 
of the United States? 

13. In what ways have the schools participated, and has 
their participation been significant? 

14. How have various social problems as "woman suffrage" 
and "prohibition" been affected? 



The Project Method m History 813 

15. What have been the effects politically? 

16. Why has it been necessary for the United States to 
conserve meats, wheat, wool, leather, iron, etc.? 

17. What plans should be made to care for our soldiers 
after the war? 

18. Are the leisure hours of the soldiers being adequately 
provided for? 

19. How is the moral fibre of our boys being maintained? 

20. Why has the United States been prejudiced in favor 
of the volunteer system? Has the conscription system 
proved superior? Has the basis for the selection of 
soldiers been fair? 

21. Have the financial needs of the government been met 
in the most effective fashion? 

22. To what extent should freedom of speech be permitted? 

23. Should the teaching of the German language be 
omitted from the schools? 

24. If a candidate for the Senatorship can stand an acid 
test for loyalty, does it make any difference whether 
he is a Democrat or a Republican? 
How has the war affected government ownership and 
control of industries? 

To what extent is it probable that the government will 
be paternalistic after the war? 

How have the relations between labor and capital 
been affected? What post-war problems will result 
and how may they be handled? 

Who is the greatest statesman of the war? Explain. 
Is a third term for the president desirable? 
How has the need for improved transportation facili- 
ties been met? Will these improvements be of special 
significance after the war? 
Has the Monroe Doctrine become obsolete? 



214 The Project Method in Education 

During the present period of reconstruction the nature 
of the problems will vary somewhat from the above list, al- 
though there are many problems that still are pertinent. 

The immediate present may be inadequate to provide a 
sufficiently comprehensive grasp of human knowledge neces- 
sary for the child's span of life. The pressing problems of 
to-day probably will vary materially from the problems of 
forty years from now. The child's preparation not only is 
for to-day but is also for the to-morrow when he will have 
adult responsibilities. History teaches us, however, that 
there is no abrupt break from one year to another, but that 
the present for any period has been evolved from the past. 
If the child, consequently, has interpreted the more impor- 
tant situations of to-day, he is prepared to continue to grow 
into the new problems of to-morrow. The particular prob^ 
lems that prominently are before the public during a given 
period of time may be inadequate for the training of the 
child, but if the problems of the present generation are taken, 
the possibility of training the child adequately are substan- 
tially increased. 

Society should be analyzed m an attempt to secure suit- 
able problems. It is insufficient that a teacher shall employ 
only those problems that come prominently into the focus of 
public consciousness. Society, as at present organized, 
should be analyzed ; the various topics should be selected and 
evaluated. Those problems which are vital to modern life 
should be emphasized, the historical perspective being used 
to illuminate them. 

There are certam groups of problems some aspects of 
•which almost constantly are before the people. The fol- 
lowing organization is suggestive of the topics that are more 
or less pertinent to every generation. If the emphasis is 
placed upon the present, the possibilities of combining geog- 
raphy and history readily will be seen: 



The Project Method in History 215 

1. Expansion of the American people. 

2. Industrial history: (a) fishing; (b) fur trading; (c) 
forests; (d) pastoral activities; (e) agricultural ac- 
tivities; (f) mining activities; (g) manufacturing ac- 
tivities; (h) transportation and communication; (i) 
conservation of natural resources. 

3. Cities: (a) location and development; (b) municipal 
problems, relating to building, fires, water-supply, pro- 
hibition, social conditions, etc. 

4. Social and political history: (a) governmental problems, 
as suffrage, parties, and form of government; (b) mili- 
tary problems, as the wars of the United States and 
national defense; (c) financial problems, as money sys- 
tems, taxes, tariffs, banking, panics, and insurance; (d) 
industrial topics, as capital and labor, the factory sys- 
tem, labor and unemployment, trusts, strikes and lock- 
outs, redistribution of commodities, cooperative buying 
and selling, and government control of corporations ; 
(e) social topics, as religion, societies, education, pro- 
hibition, crime, charities and pensions, the dissemination 
of knowledge, parks and playgrounds, recreations and 
amusements, women in industry, cost of living, pure food 
control, disease and sanitation. 

5. The United States as a World Power. 

Problems readily can be used in connection with the chron- 
ological development of historical happenings. Illustrations 
of problems that may be included in a chronological organi- 
zation follow: 

1. Were the colonists justified in adopting the Declara- 
tion of Independence? 

2. What was the basis for the existence of Tories and 
Whigs at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War? 

3. Was the Revolutionary War really a "Civil War"? 



216 The Project Method in Education 

4. Was the Revolutionary War necessary, or could the 
points at issue have been settled peaceably if the colo- 
nists had been patient? 

5. How was the Declaration of Independence made good? 

6. Why was the Constitution of the United States neces- 
sary? 

7. What were the circumstances giving rise to the Fed- 
eralist and anti-Federalist parties ? 

8. In 1789, the United States practically was confined to 
the Atlantic seaboard. To-day the settled area ex- 
tends from ocean to ocean, and includes various terri- 
tories besides. How has the area of the United States 
been increased to its present proportions? 

9. Was the life of a colonial family preferable to the life 
of your family? 

10. With what foreign nation did the United States have 
its greatest difficulties during the first quarter of a 
century of its existence? 

11. What justification was there for the adoption of the 
Monroe Doctrine? Has it become obsolete? 

12. Resolved, that slavery was not the real cause of the 
Civil War. 

13. Resolved, that war between the North and the South 
was inevitable. 

14. Resolved, that the South was justified in attacking 
the North. 

15. Should we be proud of the Mexican War and its con- 
sequences ? 

16. What effect did the "industrial revolution" have on 
the development of the United States? 

17. Has the growth of political democracy in the United 
States justified itself by results? 

18. Does an uneducated boy to-day stand as excellent a 



The Project Method m History 217 

chance of succeeding as the uneducated boy of fifty 
years ago? 

19. Was the reconstruction policy in the South the best 
policy for the United States to have pursued? 

20. Does the expression "The rise of the new South" ex- 
press a truth or a fiction? 

21. What was the effect of the Spanish-American War 
upon the foreign policies of the United States? 

Debating is a desirable type of problem. Many problems 
of the past have aroused man's keenest abilities, and leading 
men have been pitted against leading men. Society has 
numerous unsolved problems over which the leaders are dis- 
agreed as to the best ways to solve them. Many problems 
of the past have been solved wisely or unwisely, according 
to the viewpoint. History, therefore, has numerous topics 
that are excellent for debates. In a history class, recently, 
was debated the following topic, "Resolved, that the Mexi- 
can War was inevitable." The class was divided into two 
equal groups. Leaders were appointed for each side, and the 
debate was carried on in regular parliamentary form. At 
the conclusion of the formal speeches, the subject for de- 
bate was thrown open to the other members of the class. 
A committee of three, that had not participated actively, 
weighed all of the arguments carefully, and presented its 
verdict before the class with a carefully written summary of 
the points advanced by each side. At another time judges 
were called in, and again the class, by secret ballot, decided 
the issue. 

In another class, a brief consideration of the Civil War 
with the idea of getting the class to visualize the actual con- 
ditions was made. The problem arose, "Was the Civil War, 
which caused so much suffering and destruction of property, 



218 The Project Method m Education 



inevitable?" This problem was recast in debate form, "Re- 
solved, that the Civil War was inevitable, that no other solu- 
tion of the differences of the North and the South could have 
been found." The class was divided into an affirmative and 
a negative group. It began a discussion of the factors lead- 
ing up to the unfortunate civil outbreak. Each side con- 
stantly was on the outlook for material suitable in the debate 
to follow. It was agreed that three members should be se- 
lected from each side to engage in the debate at the conclu- 
sion of the study of the pre-Civil War period, the selections 
to be based on the quality of work done by the different 
members of the class. The debate was really a review or 
"newview" of the conditions leading to the Civil War. Each 
girl and boy had a social motive for organizing the material 
from day to day. When the leaders were selected, the other 
students helped their leaders in every way possible. The use 
of the debate in this way was very effective. The pupils 
had a sustained enthusiasm for many days, worked ener- 
getically, organized the material, and constantly were exer- 
cising judgment. Not the least important result was the 
socialization, through cooperative work, that was stimulated. 
The significance of strong motivation scarcely can be over- 
emphasized. It scarcely can be emphasized too strongly that 
successful work in history hinges largely upon the extent to 
which the work properly is motivated. In one class room 
a project of information was being considered, "Early con- 
ditions of transportation in the Mississippi Basin." The 
class more or less listlessly was reciting according to an ac- 
count in a text-book. Real interest was lacking. In another 
classroom, a similar topic was being considered, but the 
pupils were keenly interested and visualizing step by step 
the journey of Joliet and Marquette from Green Bay to the 
Lower Mississippi. They actually felt themselves transport- 



The Project Method m History 819 

ed into the primitive environment of these explorers. The 
difference lay in the relative lack of motivation in the for- 
mer case, and in the presence of strong motivation in the 
latter case. An unambitious, careless teacher may get by 
without making a special effort to motivate the work, but 
the real teacher will have visualization material, as pictures, 
maps, and a sand table, to supplement the descriptive mate- 
rial, will contribute out of her own experiences, and will be 
on the alert to ask stimulating questions. 

Progress in history teaching depends upon (a) a careful 
selection of material according to the aims that it is desired 
to realize, (b) the devising of lesson types that will present 
the material to the child according to his particular needs 
and interests, (c) the motivation of the assignment in such 
a way that the child will want to meet the assignment, be- 
cause he feels that it is worth while. 

Problems 

1. What should be the aims of history teaching in public 
schools ? 

2. Which is preferable, the chronological order, or the 
interpretation of the present in terms of the past in the 
lower grades? In the upper grades? 

3. Give an illustration of a history topic (a) that centers 
in the present but is interpreted by the past, (b) that 
centers in the past but is interpreted by the present, 
(c) that centers in the past and is interpreted by the 
past. 

4. If the present is interpreted in terms of the past as a 
basis for a history course, would the daily newspaper 
be a satisfactory text-book? 

5. Select five topics that are excellent for debating. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE PROJECT METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY 

Geography has received a powerful stimulus as a result of 
the World War. No subject, probably, has received a 
greater stimulus as a result of the World War than geog- 
raphy. Practically every part of the earth in some way or 
other has been concerned in the great disturbance. When 
the newspapers recorded the occurrence of events, immedi- 
ately the questions arose, where did the event occur, and 
what were the conditions which made the event possible, and 
what was the relation of the event to the area? The interest 
aroused led to a desire to know more about that particular 
part of the world so as to follow intelligently the events and 
also contingent events that might arise. In many schools 
the transition of geography from the most hated of subjects 
to the most loved of subjects in the school curriculum was 
completed. Geography had come into its own, or, from 
another viewpoint, the children had come into their own, 
because of the vitalizing of the geography work. 

Modern geography stresses the relationships of life forms 
to the physical environment. The derivative meaning of the 
word geography is earth-description, which aptly describes 
the former idea of geography that "Geography is a descrip- 
tion of the earth and its people." The subject was all-inclu- 
sive, and therefore readily cared for any scrap of knowl- 
edge that could not readily be placed under some other sub- 
ject, but which it was believed the child should study. Under 

220 



The Project Method m Geography 221 

such conditions, it was natural that geography should "be- 
come the scrap bag of the school curriculum." In common 
with other subjects, geography has undergone a marked 
evolution. The idea once prevailed that "an omnipotent 
creator had, for his own amusement, or glory, made out of 
nothing a mass of earth, water, and air, whether round or 
flat was of trifling importance, had suspended it in space, 
had made sun, moon and stars to revolve around it at vari- 
ous distances and speeds to throw their shifting lights upon 
the mundane stage, had provided a vast array of scenery and 
properties, and had placed upon it a motley company of 
actors to play, each for one night only, the drama of life. 
Among these the bright consummate star was man, for whom 
the whole play, with all its leading and subordinate parts, 
supporters and supes, settings and costumes, was especially 
designed. In fact, man was the only real actor, the rest 
being little more than marionettes, wire-worked puppets, un- 
der the mechanical control of the stage manager. The rela- 
tions were considered mechanical. We no longer think of it 
as a stage setting for the play of human life. The stage 
has not been arranged by the manager for the actors, but 
the actors have been fitted to the stage. Everything on 
earth, from a butte to a beetle, from a pebble to a pope, 
is in a large sense the product of its environment. . . . The 
environment has not been adapted to man, but man has be- 
come partially, but still imperfectly, adapted to his environ- 
ment." (Dryer. What is Geography, Journal of Geog- 
raphy, Vol. IV, 348-360.) 

The dominant idea in modern geography is the study of 
the earth in its relation to life forms. The geography of 
our schools primarily is concerned with the relations of man 
with his physical environment, including plant and animal 
forms, and a study of the relationships of the physical, 



222 The Project Method m Education 

plant and animal forms that are significant to man. The 
physical environment is studied with respect to its effects 
in controlling, directing, or modifying man's activities ; man 
is studied in relation to physical influences, exerted directly 
or indirectly through other forms of life. 

Both life forms and the physical environment should be 
understood. The establishment of these interacting rela- 
tionships, manifestly, is dependent upon an understanding of 
the physical environment on the one hand, and the nature 
of life forms on the other hand. The better the grasp on 
these two parts, the relations of which constitute the highest 
development of the science of geography, the more satisfac- 
torily and the more intensively can geography be studied. 
With immature children, only simple relations can be estab- 
lished. A large part of the time must be spent in develop- 
ing the physical and human concepts, although it is desirable 
to establish comprehensive relations, whenever this is pos- 
sible. The mere fact of relationships is not difficult to estab- 
lish. A child can understand that certain climatic condi- 
tions are necessary for the production of cotton long be- 
fore he properly can explain the reasons for the distribu- 
tion of this particular climate. The reasons for the rela- 
tionships to some extent can be explained or grasped by the 
child of the lower grades, but, in general, the interpretation 
of these relationships must be postponed until the child, with 
increasing knowledge and ability, has the background for 
this interpretation. 

School geography primarily is concerned with the needs 
and wants of man, what they are, why they are in demand, 
and how they are met. Mother earth has an abundance of 
varied products for man's use. If man depends upon the 
haphazard gifts of nature, however, he can rise but little 
above other animals. Many of these gifts, as iron ore, are 



The Project Method m Geography 223 

not of much value in their discovered state, but must be 
modified by man. Water may flow through a desert region, 
but may be of little use to man unless he diverts it for irri- 
gation purposes. Water may flow rapidly down a precipi- 
tous slope, but may be of little use, unless machinery is in- 
stalled for the development of water power. Coal may exist 
in large quantities, underground, but will not be important 
until man has learned how to mine it. The economic wel- 
fare of man is dependent upon a wise adjustment to the re- 
sources of the earth. Since the higher life of man has an 
economic basis, and in part is conditioned by this founda- 
tion, it is important that the foundation shall be well laid, 
not only to provide man with his material needs, but also to 
permit him to develop all of his abilities and inclinations to 
the uttermost. The subject, geography, that provides this 
fundamental information and outlook upon the world de- 
serves careful consideration. 

Progress has been made slowly. The modern viewpoint in 
geography has been given its impetus primarily by the few 
universities that have established courses in geography under 
the direction of trained men. The number of teachers tak- 
ing this work has been very limited. Among many teachers, 
even unto the present, therefore, prevails the impression that 
the geography of to-day is the place and fact geography 
that they had when they were children. Some teachers be- 
come apologetic when they state that they have been attempt- 
ing to explain real problems to children in the light of geog- 
raphy, ending their statement with the explanation, "Of 
course, this is not geography, but the children are interested 
in it and I believe it is worth while." 

A prominent educator recently made the remark that 
geography need not be taught above the sixth grade, because 
the children can master all of the geography work necessary 



224 The Project Method vm Education 

in the first six grades. His conception of geography was 
place geography with a few interesting facts told about each 
place. He did not know that relational geography has be- 
come the important part of the subject, and that place geog- 
raphy has about the same importance in geography that 
"spelling has in language" — -or that the map occupies about 
the same place that "a dictionary has in literature." (Davis. 
The Essential in Geography, American Geog. Society, Vol. 
XXXVI, 470-473.) Teachers have begun to realize that not 
even the recent text-books have kept up with the modern 
movement in geography, which accounts for the large classes 
reported almost everywhere in this subject. There has been 
a relative lack of suitable material for the study of relational 
geography, which has caused many teachers "to know better 
than they do." The necessary detailed material rapidly is 
appearing, however, in newspapers, magazines, and books, 
in the relative ease with which many industries and physical 
features can be visited, and interpreted, in the museum ma- 
terial, etc. It is to be expected that relational geography 
in practice as well as in theory will gain ground rapidly. As 
the material becomes available, however, it is necessary that 
the teachers shall become more or less acquainted with it. 
With their numerous duties, they can do this only at a rather 
slow rate. The new teachers entering the field in many in- 
stances have not the modern viewpoint due to inadequate 
preparation, and those who have need several years of actual 
experience before they can be expected to accomplish much. 
The gratifying thing is that progress has been made, and 
that the conditions limiting progress are understood and as 
rapidly as possible are being overcome. 

The World War has accelerated good geography teaching. 
The World War has accentuated the modern viewpoint in 
geography. Somewhat suddenly it has dawned upon the 



The Project Method m Geography 225 

world that, through improved transportation and communi- 
cating facilities, the world, in effect, has become very small. 
The needs and wants of man have become so varied and com- 
plex that all parts of the world are levied upon. No longer 
is even the ocean a scientific boundary line, for the ocean is 
only a moderate barrier among nations. The interest of the 
United States at one time primarily was in the United 
States ; this interest was extended, under the Monroe Doc- 
trine, to take in the whole of the New World, and now, under 
the stress of recent events, there is a suggestion that the 
Monroe Doctrine has been transformed into an international 
doctrine that takes in all parts of the world, so extended and 
vital have our relationships become. 

The resources of the earth are very unequally distributed. 
The distribution of available energy received from the sun 
is such that in some places, as in cold and hot deserts, only 
a few specially adapted forms of life can survive. In hot, 
rainy tropical regions, with favorable soil and topographic 
conditions, life forms of value to man, as the rubber tree, 
the cacao tree, cabinet woods, etc., are found. In interme- 
diate latitudes, under favorable conditions of soil, climate, 
and topography, are found wheat, corn, and many other 
products that will not thrive under the same conditions as 
the rubber tree. The polar bear particularly is adapted to 
high latitudes, the horse to intermediate latitudes, the mon- 
key to hot, moist regions, the camel to the desert, and the 
fish to the water. Not only are there different forms of 
plant and animal life according to the environing conditions, 
but the minerals likewise are unequally distributed. Much 
of the nickel-bearing ore of the world seems to be located 
in Canada, much of the tin ore is in southeastern Asia and 
Bolivia, much of the copper ore is in the United States and 
Japan, much of the coal is in the United States, much of 



226 The Project Method in Education 

the mineral nitrate is in Chile, much of the lead and zinc is 
in Missouri, etc. 

In the face of these inequalities in distribution, there is 
a distinct tendency for man's needs and wants, in general, 
to become about the same everywhere, only varying in de- 
gree. Important commercial relations, therefore, have been 
developed for the redistribution of commodities on the basis 
of these needs and wants. No community is self-sufficing, 
probably, under present-day conditions. The United States 
secures coffee from Brazil, furs from Siberia, rubber from 
the Amazon, nitrates from Chile, hides and skins from Ar- 
gentina, wool from Australia, diamonds from South Africa, 
silk and tea from Japan, and bananas from Central Amer- 
ica. There is a tendency for each community to specialize 
in the production of those articles that it can produce most 
advantageously, the surplus being exported to areas less 
fortunately situated, while commodities produced in insuffi- 
cient quantities are brought in from producing areas where 
there is a surplus. So pronounced has this dependence and 
cooperation become that the World War awakened us to the 
fact that a disturbance in any part of the world is of pro- 
found interest to other members of the world family. 

Before the world closely was drawn together, and before 
man came to depend so heavily on numerous parts of the 
world for materials, the conception arose in this country 
particularly that the people of any political group had the 
right to work out their own internal problems as they 
pleased. This generally was interpreted to mean non-inter- 
ference with the internal policies of another government in 
any way whatsoever. Recent developments have indicated, 
however, that under present conditions it is of extreme sig- 
nificance as to the policies that are governing other nations. 
It is not always easy to distinguish between internal politi- 



The Project Method m Geography 227 

cal problems and external political problems, for the internal 
problems may be steps leading in the direction of external 
aggressiveness. A nation may become so powerful and self- 
designing that it will seek to interfere with the peaceful de- 
velopment and commercial relations of other nations, that it 
will even seek to enslave other nations. When it was seen 
that the peace of the world was threatened, and that neutrals' 
rights were being ruthlessly disregarded, and that an autoc- 
racy was threatening the world, and particularly the future 
of the United States, there was no other proper course for 
the United States to follow than to cast the weight of its 
numbers and resources on the side of those nations that ac- 
knowledged the rights of the various nations to develop their 
resources, to carry on commercial relations without im- 
proper interference. As never before, therefore, the geo- 
graphic viewpoint of other nations has assumed a very im- 
portant place in our calculations. 

The new geography in connection with the World War 
has brought vividly before the public the desirability of ac- 
quainting the child with the resources of the United States, 
and the extent to which they are being and can be utilized; 
the resources of other parts of the world, and the extent to 
which they are being and can be utilized; the relationships 
of the United States, actual and potential, to the rest of the 
world. It is coming to be seen that geography is not merely 
a drill subject, with a primary emphasis on place geography, 
but that it is fundamental in helping us to understand our- 
selves, other nations, the relations of other nations with us, 
and the relations of other nations to each other. 

The purposes which one seeks to realize determine the type 
of motivation that is employed. An adequate utilization of 
the materials of a subject requires that the opportunities 
that a subject offers in the development of the child clearly 






228 The Project Method in Education 

shall be grasped, and that the relation of the child to these 
materials also shall be known. The material, with this 
knowledge, can be organized, and adapted to the successive 
stages of development of the child. The reinterpretation of 
the function of geography so as to make it vital to an indi- 
vidual and social being enables the teacher to motivate her 
work in an effective fashion. 

To furnish needed diversity, numerous types of lessons 
should be recognized. There are many types (sometimes 
spoken of as methods) of lessons that should be recognized 
in teaching. According to the viewpoint adopted in this 
book, the method of teaching is nature's way of developing. 
The teacher's business is to see that this development goes 
on most effectively and economically. Her opportunity lies 
in the direction of securing, organizing and relating the ma- 
terial. The attempt to motivate all lessons in the same way 
frequently results in monotony and lack of interest. There 
is no particular type of lesson that exclusively should be 
employed for any state of development. The number of 
types that may be recognized is somewhat arbitrary. With 
respect to any particular lesson aspects of a number of les- 
son types may enter in, but from the standpoint of a clear 
understanding of the various ways of relating the subject 
matter to the child, a separate consideration of lesson types 
is desirable. 

The recognition of the following types in the teaching of 
geography has been found helpful: (1) journey geography; 
(2) question-and-answer lesson ; (3) topical lesson ; (4) type 
study lesson; (5) the project-problem lesson; (6) a special 
phase of the project-problem lesson, the argumentative les- 
son, involving either scoring or debating; (7) dramatization; 
(8) drill lesson; (9) special reports; (10) story lesson; 
(11) review lesson ; (12) socialized lesson. There is no sharp 



The Project Method m Geography i 829 

line of division among these lesson types, but a consideration 
of the subject matter from these varying viewpoints yields 
excellent results. 

Local geographic material is one of the more promising 
sources of motivation material. The immediate environment 
has given the child his concepts. He has become acquainted 
more or less with his physical and social environment. His 
interpretation of the concrete environment has given him a 
wealth of experiences that are available for further develop- 
ment. In relation to the supplying of the home with various 
necessities, the child has become acquainted with many of 
earth's resources. If a rural environment is concerned, the 
raw materials of nature have been prominent. If an urban 
environment is concerned, the products of refashioned mate- 
rials have been prominent. In either case the teacher will 
consider the experiences of the child, looking to the city end 
of the study of a topic for motivation in the city, and look- 
ing to the country end of the study of a topic for motivation 
in the country. If the general topic is a consideration of 
the interdependence of city and country, practically the same 
material ultimately may be used, but the order of use will 
vary. If the specific topic is a consideration of how meat 
is supplied, urban students will be better acquainted with 
the meat-packing industry, and the distribution and con- 
sumption of the products, while rural students will be better 
acquainted with the production of live stock, and its prepa- 
ration for market and disposition. 

Materials of the immediate environment can be brought 
to the notice of the child more readily than materials far 
away, (a) Physical Geography. There are very few chil- 
dren who have made careful observations of earth forms and 
processes, and their significance to man. In almost every 
community there are important processes and features. If 



£30 The Project Method in Education 

the school is located near a volcanic peak, volcanoes will be 
emphasized, if near a glacier, the work of glaciers will be 
noted, if in a dry region, the effects of winds will be noted, 
but if in a river basin, as is characteristic of most schools, 
the work of running water and resultant forms and effects 
will be given the primary emphasis. Physical factors are of 
profound significance in influencing man's activities every- 
where. An understanding of local conditions and influences 
not only is desirable from the standpoint of an effective de- 
velopment of the child in relation to his local area, but also 
is an invaluable basis for the interpretation of areas in other 
parts of the world. 

Economic geography requires a careful study of local con- 
ditions. The adults of a community are directly interested 
in the economic activities, while the children either directly 
or indirectly have similar interests. Since the local indus- 
tries closely are related to the social welfare, the children in 
many ways have become acquainted with aspects of the indus- 
tries. A further study of local industries, moreover, can be 
made more readily than a study of industries far away be- 
cause of the concreteness that can be introduced into the 
study. In many instances children will be able to secure 
additional information through home channels, or, if they 
are unacquainted with the industry, may be able to take an 
actual trip to the factory. 

In the study of industries no attempt should be made to 
understand every part of the business. The stress should 
not be placed upon the objective organization, the plant as 
a whole. The same factory offers problems sufficiently sim- 
ple for the lower grades, and problems that are sufficiently 
difficult or even beyond the ability of children of the upper 
grades. The same factory, therefore, may be studied both 
in the lower and in the upper grades, the emphasis shifting 



^_ 



The Project Method m Geography 231 

to meet the specific needs of the child concerned. If there 
is a large number of factories from which to select, it may 
be desirable to select certain factories that have a large 
number of readily understood elements for the younger chil- 
dren, and other factories which have a large number of rela- 
tively more difficult elements for the older children. It is not 
always practicable to make personal visits. In such cases, 
certain materials may be secured and used in the discussion 
as a means of increasing the interest and knowledge of a 
particular industry. 

The local industries may be used as a point of departure 
for a study of areas far away. The raw materials may be 
traced back to their point of origin, and a study of the 
conditions under which they are produced may be made. It 
may not be possible to visit a coffee plantation of Brazil, 
a tea plantation of Japan, or the nitrate fields of northern 
Chile, but it may be possible to secure samples of materials, 
pictures, etc., that will be helpful in motivating the work. 
If the material in every instance properly is related to the 
child's experiences and interests, effective results will be se- 
cured. 

Newspapers and magazines are important sources of 
motivation. While local events are of much significance for 
any community, at a very early age the child becomes in- 
terested in happenings elsewhere as discussed by the adults' 
who secure the news through the newspapers. The child 
soon learns to read the newspaper and learns of the world's 
happenings elsewhere. With the concepts that he has re- 
ceived in relation to his immediate environment, he is able 
to image and understand conditions far away. Not only 
local current events, therefore, but current events of the 
world in general are appropriate materials for interpreta- 
tion, and for further use in securing broadened experiences 



232 The Project Method m Education 

and knowledge. Under the supposition that the tool used 
by adults is not adapted to children, school papers contain- 
ing carefully selected material have been published. The 
newspapers are produced, however, in response to a distinct 
demand, and reflect the desires of the readers. If both ob- 
jectionable and unobjectionable materials appear, it is de- 
sirable that a child shall have experience in discriminating 
and in using effectively and intelligently the newspaper which 
is in common use by adults. The daily newspaper, there- 
fore, is important not only in acquainting the child with cur- 
rent happenings, but also in giving him experience, under 
intelligent direction, in the use of a tool, which he will de- 
pend upon extensively in the after-school days. 

In the reading of newspapers from the geographic stand- 
point, locational geography fundamentally is significant. 
Every event, whether important or unimportant, has an 
areal setting. It is desirable that children shall get into 
the habit of locating, either specifically or generally, every 
happening in which they have an interest. The incident will 
be much more effectively related to the child's experiences, 
and will give him a keener appreciation of the world as the 
home of man. The mere location of places in anticipation 
of need is to be condemned, but location in relation to need 
is to be commended. 

In addition to locational geography, which is significant 
in relation to every happening, it is desirable that children 
shall be encouraged to note the current events that have a 
dominantly geographical aspect. An account of the march 
of an expeditionary force, during the heart of the winter 
season, 300 miles across the tundra region of northern Rus- 
sia, for example, not only is valuable because of the loca- 
tional geography involved, but also indicates vividly the 
effects of the physical environment upon the activities of 



The Project Method m Geography 233 

man, and the means that man employs to adapt himself to 
the conditions imposed by nature. 

Current events may be used in a variety of ways. There 
is no best way of using current events. Much depends upon 
the conditions. Current events may be used as follows: (1) 
the current happening may be elaborately treated at the 
time of its occurrence; (2) the current events may be kept 
until some appropriate topic is reached; (3) the current 
events may be briefly touched upon at the time and kept 
until a topic to which they are related is being discussed, 
when they may be treated more exhaustively. 

Current events may be considered at the time of their oc- 
currence. If current events are considered in a detailed 
manner at the time of their occurrence, the course of study 
necessarily must be very flexible. Under prevailing condi- 
tions, since there is no necessary relation between the va- 
riety of events that occurs and the general field that it is 
believed should be covered, a very satisfactory arrangement 
is to permit a teacher, within the limits of the work that is 
assigned her for a given period of time and for a given large 
unit of work, to rearrange the order of topics to be discussed 
so as to relate them to current events. If the teacher's unit 
of work were South America, for example, and according to 
the formal course of study the next topic to be considered 
were Peru, if the current events of world-wide significance, 
such as strikes, disposition of grains, etc., were in Argentina, 
the teacher would make use of these current events by tak- 
ing up a study of Argentina as her next unit of work. 

There are several difficulties in the use of this plan, which 
make modifications necessary: (a) current events may not 
be diversified sufficiently so as to permit a comprehensive 
series of topics to be given; (b) current events may not 
occur rapidly enough, and the work may tend to drag; (c) 



234 The Project Method m Education 

current events may occur so rapidly that no topic is con- 
sidered in a sufficiently detailed fashion; (d) current events 
may be so unrelated to each other that a detached, unrelated, 
superficial course of study results; (e) the emphasis may be 
placed upon relatively unimportant topics. 

Current events may be considered after their occurrence. 
The course of study may be definitely outlined, and the topics 
may be taken up in systematic order. Since current events do 
not occur systematically, even from the standpoint of the 
child, current events material may be gathered by teacher and 
pupils to be used whenever some appropriate topic is being 
discussed. This plan has the advantage of permitting a 
systematic development of child and material, current events 
being used insofar as they are of significance in illuminating 
the various topics. It has a disadvantage in that the inter- 
est of the child naturally is keenest in the current event at 
the time of its happening. 

Current events may be touched briefly at the time of their 
occurrence, and referred to more elaborately when a topic 
to which they are related is being discussed. This plan is 
a compromise between the two previously suggested. Chil- 
dren will be encouraged to note the passing event of geo- 
graphical significance, and briefly will refer to it in class. 
The clipping will be preserved until that part of the course 
to which it is related is reached. A certain amount of fa- 
miliarity with the topic will make the children feel that they 
are studying something that is related to their experiences. 
A fairly close contact with important happenings is estab- 
lished, while the approved content is not neglected. Current 
events are used only to the extent that they are pertinent to 
the topics, and many topics necessarily are taken up that can 
not be motivated directly through current events. It is not 
to be expected that one plan alone shall prevail. It is suf- 
ficient that a teacher shall have in mind the various possi- 



A Interdependence 



The Project Method m Geography 285 

bilities, and that she shall use first one plan and then an- 
other according to the particular circumstances. 

The topic, wheat, may be used as an illustration of an 
objective organization that is helpful in securing the psy- 
chological viewpoint. 

City : Manufacture, Distribution, 
Consumption. 

Country : Production, Preparation 
for market, Disposition. Relating 
city and country: Transportation. 
B. City end of the study of wheat. 

1. Uses. Have children enumerate uses of wheat 
products. 

2. Sources of the wheat products of the home. 
Made in the home. 

Secured from the bakery. 

3. Making of wheat products. 

4. Securing the flour (a) the family; (b) the baker; 
(c) the wholesaler. 

5. Manufacturing the flour. 

C. Country end of the study of wheat. 

1. Source of the raw material, wheat. 

2. Transportation of the wheat to the mill, (a) 
railroad, (b) waterway, (c) wagon road. 

3. Production of wheat. 

4. Harvesting and thrashing. 

5. Disposition of the wheat. 

If the study is being made with rural children, the teacher 
will consider the country end of the study of wheat for mo- 
tivation material ; if the study is being made with urban chil- 
dren, the city end of the industry will suggest the point of 
departure. 



236 The Project Method m Education 

The project-exercise of much significance m the lower 
grades is journey geography. With the experiences of the 
local area, the child is prepared to understand the far away 
areas. Unless these areas are related to the local area, 
however, geography tends to become a more or less nebulous 
subject with a fairyland setting. The pupil, through actual 
journeys hither and thither, becomes acquainted with the 
local environment. In a somewhat similar fashion, he may 
visualize routes from his locality to other regions, and can 
reproduce in imagination the descriptions of others of the 
geographic material that can be seen from place to place. 
With a few well-selected imaginary journeys, the child can 
secure a reasonably satisfactory picture of the earth as the 
home of man. If the pupil is living at St. Louis, for ex- 
ample, imaginary journeys on the various radiating water- 
ways will help to acquaint him with the great interior de- 
pression of which St. Louis is the pivot. These journeys 
may involve a trip from St. Louis to St. Paul, St. Louis to 
New Orleans, St. Louis to Pittsburgh, St. Louis to Kansas 
City, and St. Louis to Peoria. The characteristic activi- 
ties and the centers of population should be stressed in such 
journeys. 

Project-problems naturally follow journey geography 
work. After having secured numerous concepts concerning 
the earth as a whole through journey geography, the pupils 
have a broad valuable basis for the interpretation of proj- 
ect-problems. As an illustration of the way a continent 
may be handled with the use of project-problems, the fol- 
lowing set of questions, relating to South America, is given: 

1. Have the countries of Latin America undergone as im- 
portant a development as the United States ? 

2. Why has Latin America undergone a much Jess rapid 
development? 



The Project Method in Geography 287 

3. Which region, the United States or northwest Europe, 
should have the larger trade relations with South 
America? 

4. Account for the dominating importance, in Argentina, 
of the Pampas. 

5. Why is Buenos Aires the leading city of Argentina? 

6. Account for the concentration of the agricultural ac- 
tivities in the Great Valley of Chile. 

7. Is the desert region of northern Chile worth fighting 
for? 

8. Is it possible that the forested area will become a much 
more valuable possession than the desert area of the 
north? (Chile.) 

9. Correlate the location of the cities with the distribu- 
tion of resources, and not human influences which have 
favored their development. (Chile.) 

.0. Explain the sparse population of the Amazon Basin. 

.1. Account for the greater relative importance of the 
coastal area of Brazil from Cape St. Rogue southward. 

.2. In what ways have the various people of Brazil con- 
tributed to its development? 

3. Why are practically all of the important cities of 
Brazil on or near navigable waterways? 

4. Indicate the possibilities of a "Greater Brazil" based 
upon a more nearly complete adjustment to natural 
resources. 

5. Account for the slowness and inefficiency with which the 
resources of the northern Andean countries have been 
utilized. 

6. Account for the location of important cities in the 
interior. (Northern Andean countries.) 

7. Through a comparison of the physical conditions, re- 
sources, and people of Paraguay and Uruguay, seek 



238 The Project Method m Education 

to determine which country has the better advantages 
for an important national development. 

18. Contrast the economic activities of the Guianas with 
those of northern Chile. 

19. Why should the United States be interested in the pres- 
ervation of order and in the development of the re- 
sources of Mexico? 

20. Account for the diversity of products represented in 
Mexico. 

21. Account for the location and development of the im- 
portant cities. (Mexico.) 

22. The United States has taken a special interest in Pan- 
ama in improving conditions. Make a study of original 
conditions and improvements effected. Is it probable 
that the other countries of Central America would be 
benefited by American intervention? 

23. Why should the activities of the West Indies be of 
greater moment to the United States than to any other 
first-class power? 

24. The Pan-American Union, with its headquarters in 
Washington, seeks to establish more cordial relations 
amongst the North and South American countries. In 

what ways may a more satisfactory relation amongst 
these countries be secured? 

The above set of problems actually was worked out in 
class. In each case there was preparatory material out of 
which the problem arose, materials were secured and inter- 
preted, and the problem was solved or the materials sum- 
marized. (A more detailed account of the above set of prob- 
lems is given in the Public School Messenger of the St. Louis 
Schools, for December, 1917.) It is not expected that the 
particular problems presented necessarily shall be used, but 



The Project Method m Geography £39 

the problems merely are suggestive of the possibilities of 
treating a continent from this viewpoint, the particular prob- 
lems being determined by the conditions attending the class 
room work, particularly the reactions of the pupils in rela- 
tion to the situations. 

The logical, outline organization is the climax m geogra- 
phy teaching. So accustomed are pupils to an outline or- 
ganization imposed upon the class by a teacher that, almost 
invariably, they believe this to be the proper methbd. So 
prejudiced have normal school students become in favor of 
this earlier organization that much patient work is neces- 
sary in getting them to understand the desirability of a 
different presentation to immature students. The pupils 
should work toward an organization, and not from one. 
Until the pupils have secured many details, they have little 
or no material to organize. If they are to organize their 
own material, they first must have interpreted the material. 
The logical, systematic outline, consequently, preferably is 
the pupil's organization adopted after the pupil has ma- 
terial that needs organizing. It is the climax in geography 
teaching. Since the specialist of a given subject tends to 
organize his work systematically, the teacher, who has come 
under his influence, tends merely to pass on to the pupil 
the advanced type of organization. With the shift in focus 
of emphasis from subject matter to the development of the 
child, the logical, comprehensive, outline organization is 
being pushed to the background. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE REORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY 

Various subjects have been recognized as a matter of con- 
venience. During the last century careful, painstaking work 
has increased remarkably the aggregate body of knowledge. 
As this knowledge has become available, more and more of 
it has been incorporated in the course of study. This has 
been done in part by enriching the various subjects, in part 
by the introduction of other subjects. Many topics are 
being advocated for school use. To such an extent has the 
number of subjects been increased that superintendents, when 
approached concerning the introduction of "safety first" 
material, patriotic material, etc., resolutely refuse to permit 
the number of subjects to be increased, but if the material 
seems worthy anxiously scrutinize the various subjects to de- 
termine if the new material can be included in the course 
of study as organized. 

Any organization of subject matter on the basis of sub- 
jects is somewhat arbitrary. The world- whole of knowl- 
edge is interrelated. There is no subject that stands alone, 
but the relationships among the subjects is very close. Sub- 
jects can be recognized only on the basis of different view- 
points. In the central part of the field of each subject there 
is little difficulty in recognizing the material pertinent to 
that subject, but toward the edge of the field are numerous 
materials that it is difficult to classify by subjects. For 
convenience in teaching the various subjects are recognized, 

240 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 241 

but it is questionable whether the objective classification 
has not prevailed at the expense of the real development of 
the child. 

There are weaknesses of organization by subjects, which it 
is difficult to overcome. The organization of knowledge by 
subject helps in placing the emphasis upon subject mat- 
ter that is regarded necessary. It permits the teacher to 
develop the work of the subject systematically, and helps 
the pupil, because of the narrow field covered, to grasp the 
material with relative ease. It is weak in that the subject 
matter relatively is isolated from that of other subjects, and 
an undue significance is placed upon the various subjects as 
objective material. Emphasis, in spite of every precaution, 
tends to center about the subject matter rather than about 
the child's needs and development, for the recognition of 
subjects has been made, not from the child's standpoint, but 
from the standpoint of an objective organization of the 
world-whole of knowledge. 

Numerous attempts have been made to maintain the pres- 
ent organization of knowledge by subjects, and at the same 
time to overcome or minimize the disadvantages. The vari- 
ous subjects have been correlated. History has been used to 
illuminate geography topics, mathematical geography has 
been used to reenforce arithmetical topics, spelling lists 
have been selected from reading, etc. Such correlation has 
not, in general, been systematically pursued. The degree of 
correlation has depended upon the particular whims or in- 
sight of each teacher. Many teachers have erred in forcing 
correlations and introducing irrelevant material on the one 
hand, or in becoming so engrossed in the subject that cor- 
relations almost altogether were neglected. Some correlation 
schemes have gone so far as to attempt to have the pupils 
consider the same or some closely related topic along parallel 



242 The Project Method m Education 

lines. If the history of Greece were being studied in history, 
then geography, reading, spelling, arithmetic, music, and all 
other subjects should treat of some aspect of Greece at the 
same time. This type of close correlation has not been very 
satisfactory, as too much violence was done to the organiza- 
tion of the various subjects. 

Recognizing the weakness involved in considering all sub- 
jects as of equal importance in relating the subjects, others 
have attempted to correlate according to the "concentra- 
tion plan." One subject, as geography, or history, was 
selected as the central core about which the course of study 
should be organized, the order of topics in the various sub- 
jects to be determined by the order of topics in the subject 
constituting the core. The core subject was given undue 
prominence and this scheme has never been very satisfac- 
tory. The best plan of relationships thus far worked out 
seems to be the organization of each subject from the psy- 
chological standpoint, and the "cooperation" of the various 
subjects, wherever such cooperation will permit the teaching 
of the subject in question more efficiently. 

Departmental work has increased teaching efficiency. As 
the number of subjects to be taught increased and the stand- 
ards for teachers were raised, it was believed that much 
more efficient work could be accomplished if the teacher 
could devote her time to one or two of the subjects. She 
could select the subjects in which she had the greatest 
interest, and could master the details of the subject, whereas 
if she had to teach ten or twelve subjects, she could not 
master adequately any of them. The teacher, possibly, could 
not have the close personal contact and understanding of 
the child that she could have according to the horizontal 
plan, but she could master the technique of her subject. 
The number of subjects was diminished for any one teacher, 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 243 

but the number of pupils with whom the teacher came into 
contact was greatly increased. The departmental plan has 
accomplished much good, particularly in the upper grades, 
in helping us to understand subject matter, its nature and 
possibilities, but, in spite of special devices, its great weak- 
ness lies in the emphasis that inevitably is placed on the sub- 
ject at the relative expense of the pupil. 

Supervision of special subjects carries with it the danger 
of over-emphasis of certain subjects. In order to raise 
the standard of teaching, considerable emphasis has been 
placed on supervision. The superintendent always has en- 
gaged in more or less perfunctory supervision, but with in- 
creasing emphasis upon the various subjects, it was deemed 
necessary that specialists in the various subjects should 
supervise the teaching of those subjects. In various school 
systems, therefore, there are supervisors of penmanship, of 
history, of geography, ox physical training, etc. Much good 
has resulted from this supervision, but the grave danger is 
that the subject matter will be emphasized unduly at the 
expense of the child. 

The various subjects should be regarded from the stand- 
point of the child. During the period that emphasis was 
being placed upon the subject matter, correlation, concen- 
tration, cooperation, and departmental instruction, the 
psychological viewpoint was not entirely eliminated. Only 
within recent years, however, has the emphasis tended actu- 
ally to shift from the teaching of subject matter to the 
teaching of the child. The original emphasis upon subject 
matter probably was necessary as it now leaves us free to 
attack vigorously the other side of the problem with an 
adequate knowledge and control of subject matter. 

The subject matter should be organized so as to socialize 
the child. Subject matter now is regarded not as an end but 



244 The Project Method m Education 

as a means to an end. The pupil must be socialized, not by 
talking about his duties as a social being, but by permit- 
ting him actually to participate in social activities. There 
is a tendency for the army discipline, with the teacher as a 
dictator, to be eliminated. The teacher is not placed over 
the group but is placed with the group, and all work to- 
gether, making suggestions, giving and taking, according to 
the social needs. The socialized recitation, involving co- 
operative group work, with the teacher in the background, 
and socialized general school activities are doing much to 
help the school authorities, through the materials of the 
school, and the various subjects, to develop in the child cor- 
rect ideals, skills, attitudes, and knowledge, for a desirable 
life as a member of the social organism. 

The emphasis is shifting from subject matter to the adap- 
tation of subject matter to the child. The emphasis is shift- 
ing from subject matter, objectively considered and or- 
ganized, to the adaptation of subject matter to the prin- 
ciples of child development. It is regarded as essential that 
the work shall be adapted to child needs, interests, and abil- 
ity. It is regarded as much better to get the child to work, 
not through compulsion, but through desire. The old idea 
that pupils grow by overcoming obstacles, and that the work 
purposely should be made difficult and unattractive, has been 
replaced with the idea that the more interesting the work 
can be made, the better in order that the child will be willing 
to put forth effort to overcome the difficulties which inevit- 
ably attend many situations. The doctrines of interest and 
of effort have been correlated. An endeavor is made to make 
the work meaningful, to have the child engage in purpose- 
ful activity. Subject matter as an objective organization 
has been subordinated to the use of subject matter in arous- 
ing interest and in getting the child to seek to realize the 
needs thus aroused. 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 245 

The school life may be organized so that it as nearly as 
is practicable will approximate the out-of-school life. It gen- 
erally is agreed that children are living a life and at the 
same time preparing for later-life activities. An attempt has 
been made to organize the school life so that it as nearly as 
possible will approximate the out-of-school life. It has been 
said that adults are interested in knowledge to the extent 
that they are helped to meet life's situations, that con- 
stantly adults are confronted with problems and situations 
which they must attempt to meet. Each subject, therefore, 
should be organized by topics in such a way that problems 
and situations will arise that will give the child experience 
in using the materials of each subject according to the vari- 
ous uses to which it will be put in the adult world. This 
viewpoint is very commendable, but it inevitably has its weak- 
nesses as long as the different subjects are kept separate, 
for adults do not ask, when confronted by a situation, what 
does geography have that will help me and so on for each 
subject. They marshal their materials according to the 
problem to be met and think in terms of the materials and 
not in terms of subjects. 

The preceding discussion has indicated (a) the important 
accumulation and organization of knowledge that has come 
about through a careful study of racial experiences and suc- 
cessive environments; (b) that the emphasis in recent years 
has shifted to the use of material not as an end, but as a 
means of fitting the child for adult responsibilities and at the 
same time permitting him as a child to realize the fullness of 
living; (c) that, to accomplish these educational aims, 
socialization, motivation, and the organization of material 
according to the way that it actually is used by adults, has 
been emphasized. The undue influence of the colleges and 
universities in inculcating an undue respect for subject mat- 
ter as objective material gradually has been overcome. In 



246 The Project Method m Education 

recognizing the various subjects and in attempting to make 
each serve a distinct purpose in developing the child, has the 
highest possible attainment been reached or is it possible to 
reorganize the material still further, at the expense, if 
necessary, of the continued existence of the various subjects, 
so that results will be secured more economically and more 
efficiently and more assuredly. 

The stimulus received from the World War has induced a 
careful reevaluation of subject matter. For a generation 
preceding the outbreak of the World War leaders in the 
educational field had been urging that the schools should 
be brought into more intimate relations with the out-of- 
school life of the world. It was recommended that a more 
extensive use of the local environment should be made ; that 
present-day situations and current events should be dis- 
cussed and properly related to the past ; that the content of 
the school curriculum rigorously should be scrutinized with 
the aim of eliminating any material that had no important 
bearing upon present conditions ; that the material of the 
various subjects should be organized in the form of prob- 
lems or situations so as to accord as nearly as possible with 
the use of the material in other institutional organizations; 
that a study of the possibilities of breaking down the bar- 
riers artificially established among subjects should be made 
with the view of organizing the school curriculum around 
situations and problems ; that method and content should 
be determined, insofar as practicable, on the basis of the 
child's interests, needs, and state of development. 

Progress conservatively was being made along these vari- 
ous lines. Those who believed in the old order of school 
activities regarded the innovations with skepticism; those 
who were full of enthusiasm for the new order of things in 
education were impatient at the slowness with which the 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 247 

changes were being effected. At last came the great war 
with its additional burdens upon the energies of man. The 
United States attempted to maintain a neutral position, but 
in spite of this, the relationships of the country to all coun- 
tries at war were so numerous and important that an intense 
interest in the war was aroused. The war and problems 
related to the war afforded the leading topics for discussion 
in the home, in the church, and in all social gatherings. The 
interest of the adults was communicated to the children. It 
was next to impossible, had it been desirable, to eliminate the 
war and its related problems from the schoolroom. The 
opportunity for which the progressive teachers had longed 
had come to link the school work, with a minimum of un- 
favorable criticism from the public at large, with the world 
situations of intense interest to adults and children alike. 

For almost three years this interest was maintained, al- 
though the American people were following primarily as they 
believed the fortunes of others. Conditions gradually be- 
came intolerable, and it became impossible for the United 
States to maintain its neutrality longer without discredit 
and loss of self-respect. The whole resources of the American 
people were thrown into the terrible conflict. It was recog- 
nized that the war was a conflict not merely between armies 
in the field but a conflict of nations, which involved the 
closest cooperation of the stay-at-homes, if victory were to 
be assured. The schools hitherto had been regarded as 
followers of progress. Many believed that a wide gap ex- 
isted between the schools and other organizations which 
could be overcome only by considerable experience after the 
pupils had left school. It was recognized that the schools 
were necessary, but few had thought of them as being val- 
uable agencies to cope with present situations and to point 
the way to a better day. 



248 The Project Method m Education 

The world situation was acute and required that every in- 
stitution should be organized with the common aim of win- 
ning the war. There was a strong demand that the schools 
should assist ; the teachers and pupils were anxious to assist. 
It came about, therefore, that the schools began to sell thrift 
stamps, to make speeches, to sell liberty bonds, to knit sweat- 
ers, socks, caps, etc., to collect newspapers, tinfoil, rags, 
and various waste articles ; to solicit and contribute to the 
Red Cross and other worthy organizations, to devise various 
ways of assisting. Without any particular effort, there- 
fore, because of the preparatory period that had preceded 
during the last generation that the modern ideas gradually 
were gaining ground, when the need came for the schools to 
work shoulder to shoulder with the other organizations, 
they were not found wanting. 

The great war is over. Will the schools return to their 
former status, lose much of their point of contact with the 
out-of-school life, and again be regarded primarily as fol- 
lowers of society's advances, lagging along sufficiently far 
enough behind the times that they will not be concerned with 
present-day problems and difficulties? It is hardly to be 
expected that the conservatism of generations can be over- 
come in the course of a few months. It is to be expected that 
the schools will react to some extent from the prominent posi- 
tion that they have taken. Never again, however, shall we 
expect to see a bridgeless gap encircling our schools. They 
have been touched with the breath of life. The children 
themselves will never be satisfied with the condition of status 
quo. The teacher who would gain the interest and respect 
of her children desperately must seek to help them to main- 
tain their points of contact with real human needs. She 
must motivate her work in terms of the living present. With 
the passing of the crisis, the insistent demands upon our 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 249 

school will vary in kind, but the world at large, with an in- 
creased respect for the work of the schools and the potential 
possibilities, will cooperate with the school teachers in per- 
mitting the schools, in times of peace, to relate their activi- 
ties, in a significant manner, with the world at large. Never 
again can the schools hold the position of relative unimpor- 
tance among our people, but every encouragement will be 
given them to lead as well as to follow, to participate in the 
life of the times, as well as to prepare for intelligent addi- 
tional participation. 

The interests of the children suggested the need of omit- 
ting certain formally required parts of the course of study. 
The children were in a position to dictate to some extent the 
nature of the material that should be studied. The prob- 
lem of the educator and teacher shifted somewhat from the 
attempt to interest the child in material that society has re- 
garded as necessary to a consideration of the subject matter 
and the possibility of eliminating that which has outgrown 
its usefulness and of inserting that which according to mod- 
ern-day conditions highly is desirable. Each subject has 
been scrutinized searchingly, and all material retained has 
had to stand the crucial test of modern-day usefulness, and 
material that is justified on the basis of survival of cus- 
tom is looked upon with skepticism. 

A course of study may be organized about situations. In 
relation to outside activities the children worked enthusias- 
tically when they knew that their work was contributing in 
common with the work of adults in helping to win the war. 
They did not stop to ask each other whether the selling of 
thrift stamps, or the collection of waste materials, was arith- 
metic or geography or history. They had worth-while situ- 
ations to meet and both instinctively and intelligently made 
use of their whole resources of being to realize their pur- 



250 The Project Method m Education 

poses. It seems inevitable that in spite of all of the modern 
endeavor to make the various subjects serve the best in- 
terests of the child, the emphasis cannot properly be placed 
because of the artificial conditions established. The modern 
point of view certainly vitalizes the various subjects, but 
subjects are artificial divisions, and the consideration of 
problems and situations in any one subject naturally means 
a distorted picture of the situation and its meaning in as 
much as all other subjects will be given only incidental men- 
tion, however important they may be. A person who studies 
present conditions in Mexico from the geographical stand- 
point will have a different picture from the one who studies 
present conditions in the light of history. Both viewpoints 
should enter into an understanding of present-day affairs, 
and this could be done more certainly if the work were or- 
ganized about situations. 

Courses of study organized about situations have failed 
up to this time, and many are not convinced of their prac- 
ticability because of the lack of breadth of view which has 
characterized their consideration. A course of study based 
on the industrial arts, for example, is too narrow in scope 
to be satisfactory and acceptable. The organization of a 
suitable course of study about situations involves a broad 
consideration of time and place relations, history and geog- 
raphy, if defined with a most liberal interpretation. All 
essential aspects of the different subjects are involved in time 
and place relations. The historical perspective and the place 
perspective suggest the fundamental principle involved in the 
working out of the new course of study for which our schools 
are prepared. 

This proposed reorganization of subject matter about 
situations is only an evolutionary step for which the schools 
of the past have been preparing. It has been shown that 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 251 

proper study has been made of education from the standpoint 
of content, that for the last quarter of a century similar 
important studies have been made from the standpoint of 
the child, that recent participation in war activities by the 
children has accelerated the movement looking toward the 
elimination of useless material and the introduction of use- 
ful material, that the interests of the children were in real 
situations and problems and not in the various subjects as 
subjects. As the next progressive step the suggestion is 
strong that the long-recognized division among subjects 
should fade away, and that the worth-while material should 
be organized about situations and problems. 

Drills and mechanical accomplishments mil not be elimi- 
nated. While subjects as now organized would disappear 
from the school curriculum, the worth-while material of the 
various subjects would be retained. Arithmetical oper- 
ations would enter into the situations, and insofar as is 
necessary would be succeeded or attended with the neces- 
sary drill work. The viewpoint of subjects might be re- 
tained by the teacher, as this would be one way of enabling 
her to determine whether through the situations she was 
realizing the minimum essentials or not. There would be 
no necessary conflict between the aims of education to be 
realized through subjects and through situations, but the 
situation organization, it is believed, would secure the reali- 
zation of the aims more economically, more quickly, and more 
assuredly. 

The working out of a course of study on the basis of sit- 
uations is difficult because the work, from time immemorial, 
has not been organized on this basis. There is no tradition 
to guide, and present methods are bringing good results. 
The experimental introduction of such a course in all schools 
would be unpardonable. It is necessary, first of all, that the 



252 The Project Method in Education 

situation course of study should be studied in all of its 
phases in an experimental training school, and that the 
course conclusively shall be demonstrated as being superior 
to the present organization before its general adoption shall 
be urged. It is desirable, then, that the reorganized course 
shall be introduced rapidly in the schools. 

Situations should be grouped systematically and graded. 
The material of the various subjects has been organized with 
the intention of giving the child topics of increasing difficulty 
from grade to grade, in accordance with the increasing abil- 
ity of the child, and with the intention of giving him worth- 
while material, at whatever age his school training may be 
discontinued. A similar grading of situations would be 
necessary under the new plan. It is probable that situations 
could be classified and standardized in such a way that a 
certain freedom in the selection of situations could be made 
for each grade. 

The organization of subject matter m situations ulti- 
mately will lessen the burden of the teacher. Under the old 
plan of one teacher to the grade, the teacher soon learned 
her pupils, but found herself handicapped because of lack 
of time to put on the subject matter. Under the depart- 
mental plan this handicap has been in large part overcome. 
The proposed reorganization by situations would make a 
teacher again responsible for the varied activities of a room. 
The teacher, however, would not be burdened with a large 
number of distinct subjects. She would have her set or 
types of situations for which she would be responsible. If 
her training were with situations, the work would be just as 
easy as according to the present arrangement. The transi- 
tion period will involve special effort on the part of the 
teachers, but the joy of accomplishment should more than 
offset any inconveniences. The departmental work, at first, 



The Reorganization of the Course of Study 253 

seems to be in the direction of discouraging the proposed 
plan, but in reality it is preparing the teaching force to 
make the transition with the least possible friction. The 
present plan of numerous subjects, if one teacher to a group 
is used, imposes too great a burden upon the teacher, while 
the departmental plan permits the thorough organization of 
subject matter, within limits, on the basis of situations and 
problems. 

If the school work is reorganized on the basis of situ- 
ations, without a formal recognition of the various subjects, 
the development of the child will come naturally and with- 
out artificial restraints, the school will establish easy re- 
lations with other life activities, informal, discussional work 
with the real life of the child represented will be encouraged, 
and opportunities for individuals to assert and develop their 
native ability will be presented as never before. While no 
precipitate change is urged, leaders in education should make 
a thoroughgoing study of this viewpoint and as soon as re- 
sults are assured, the change should be effected as easily 
as possible. The economical utilization of the project 
method in education favors the situation reorganization of 
school work. 

Prof. Hosic suggests numerous difficulties in the way of an 
effective readjustment of the school curriculum. Professor 
Hosic, in discussing the relation of the problem-project 
method to present school practice, has outlined the subject 
in the following way : 

"A. Serious difficulties lie in the way of an attempt to 
introduce in a thoroughgoing way the problem-project 
method into our school as now organized and conducted. 

1. A different tradition prevails. 

2. More knowledge of learning processes, more technical 



254 The Project Method m Education 

skill, and more scholarship are required than for the 
use of 'logical' or 'formal' methods — the teacher must 
play various roles. 

3. It is difficult to organize a system of projects so as 
to provide for the entire body of attitudes, skills, and 
knowledges which at present we wish children to gain 
in school. 

4. Time is easily wasted by over-emphasis on some phase 
of the process — even on 'teaching children to think.' 

5. The ordinary course of study must be largely reor- 
ganized and rewritten. 

6. School equipment must be adapted. 

7. New measures of results must be applied. 

"B. But the method employed by the nation is the method 
to be used in the schools." (Hosic, James Fleming. An Out- 
line of the Problem-Project Method. The English Journal, 
Nov. 1918, p. 60.) 

The project method, efficiently used, requires a -proper or- 
ganization of subject matter. A capable teacher, by adapt- 
ing, can accomplish much, irrespective of the course of study, 
in applying the principles that involve an efficient use of the 
project method. The type of organization of material that 
prevails, however, places a severe limitation upon a maxi- 
mally efficient use. The organization of the course of study 
should be as nearly as possible adapted to the purposes for 
which it is created, and the skill of the teacher can be em- 
ployed to make the course of study function in the most 
efficient manner. That radical changes are imminent, both 
in the selection and organization of material, clearly is evi- 
dent. Any change that is effected should be made in such 
a manner that a minimum of confusion will be caused to the 
school system as a whole. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER 

The teacher's preparation should be thorough. Irrespec- 
tive of the type of organization of material for the grades, 
the teacher's preparation should be thorough. This prepa- 
ration should include a comprehensive study of subject mat- 
ter, of child psychology, and of her own personal nature. 
These aspects of educational life should be studied separately 
but also relationally. The day is past when anybody can 
teach school. The requirements of a teacher under present 
conditions are as exacting as in any vocation that can be 
selected. There still are too many teachers who are self- 
made in the sense that they have had no particular training 
for their work. As long as the public will countenance such 
teaching this evil may be expected to continue. It is en- 
couraging that the standards which teachers must meet are 
being raised, that school boards are insisting on adequately 
trained teachers, and that well-trained teachers are securing 
compensation more nearly commensurate with the prepara- 
tion demanded. The World War has brought vividly be- 
fore the people the value of the public schools not only to 
teach the pupils those racial inheritances which society has 
found valuable, but also constructively to aid in accelerating 
progress. In other words, it has dawned upon the people 
that the schools not only should follow, but also should lead. 
People in general have what they sincerely desire. The 
teaching profession offers an attractive future for all 

255 



256 The Project Method m Education 

naturally gifted young people, who are willing to put forth 
the effort required. 

The reorganization of subject matter about situations 
and problems increases the necessity of a teacher's being 
well informed. The fact that problems are not arbitrarily 
determined, but arise with the children leading, requires the 
ability on the part of the teacher to rearrange and relate 
the subject matter according to the particular form that the 
topic takes with the class. This adaptation is much more 
difficult than the objective organization of material which 
is imposed on the child. It is much easier to master one par- 
ticular type of organization of material, utilizing this or- 
ganization year after year, than it is constantly to rear- 
range and relate. 

The breadth of view should be greater than that expected 
of the pupils. According to the modern viewpoint, the par- 
ticular details grasped by successive classes of the same 
grade may vary, but there are certain conclusions and gen- 
eralizations that every child should grasp. This freedom 
of selection of details increases the need of breadth of view 
on the part of the teacher. The teacher who believes that 
she needs merely to be a transmitter of certain staple infor- 
mation will be satisfied with a very limited preparation. The 
teacher who would meet the modern requirements, however, 
must have a much broader grasp of subject matter than she 
possibly can expect her pupils to secure, in order that she 
intelligently can direct the work of the children in relation 
to world knowledge, in order that she may help them with 
their problems, in order that her broad grasp may be a 
stimulation to the children to continue their studies, be- 
cause of the feeling developed that they have not "finished" 
their education, when they have secured the school diploma. 

The teacher need not be trained only in the same way that 



The Preparation of the Teacher 257 

she will tram the pupil. If the teacher is to teach by means 
of projects specially organized to secure a rapid desirable 
development, is it necessary for her to be trained according 
to the way that she will train? Is it desirable that our nor- 
mal schools, colleges, and universities shall rearrange the 
material with this in mind? If the teacher were to be a mere 
transmitter of knowledge, or desired to secure barely enough 
information so that she could "carry on," for a few years, 
the answer is in the affirmative. It is impossible, however, 
systematically to cover the field of knowledge on which the 
teacher must depend as comprehensively and as quickly as 
by an objective, logical, outline organization. The working 
out of a type set of situations will not be satisfactory from 
the subject-matter standpoint, because the teacher will not 
be given a method of attack that will enable her to use the 
great store of objectively organized world knowledge at a 
moment's notice. So far as experience has indicated, it 
seems preferable to give our student teachers systematic 
training in content, with a sufficient training in types of les- 
sons to be used in the teaching of children, so that they can 
recast the material according to the particular situations 
that arise. 

An understanding of children is indispensable. A broad 
scholarship with reference to subject matter is necessary, but 
this is only part of the preparation required of the modern 
teacher. She also must understand the nature of the child. 
A special study of child psychology, therefore, should be 
made in order that the known laws governing child develop- 
ment may be utilized. What are the instinctive interests of 
the child, and how may desirable instincts be aroused and 
undesirable instincts inhibited? How may the child be in- 
duced to acquire an interest in desirable situations in which 
he has little or no instinctive interest? At what state of de- 



258 The Project Method in Education 

velopment is each instinct strongest? To what extent is the 
small child a reasoning being? What is the significance of 
the doctrine of interest and of the doctrine of effort in re- 
lation to child development? What is the truth concerning 
the doctrine of formal discipline? Is the culture-epoch 
theory tenable? The preceding questions, and many more 
of a similar nature, an earnest person in training to become 
a teacher should seek to answer. The teacher is not dealing 
with an inanimate mass of clay, but with a child "made in 
the image of God," and with a certain amount of independent 
freedom of action. If her work were a "pouring-in" process, 
her training could be confined to subject matter, but her 
primary task is to prepare the material for "mental assimi- 
lation" by the child. If intelligent rather than haphazard 
training of the child is to be effected, if the child is to be 
educated scientifically, and not accidentally, the subject mat- 
ter must be properly related to the special nature of the 
child. 

An understanding of children is indispensable. A theoret- 
ical study of the nature of the child is desirable, but this is 
insufficient. A teacher in training should have actual con- 
tact with children. Contact with children in the home, on 
the playground, and in the churches is valuable. The 
teacher has been a child and has associated with other chil- 
dren. She has bad a valuable experience with children, 
therefore, before beginning training for her vocation. This 
experience, however, has been haphazardly and not sys- 
tematically acquired. No special study of the child has 
been made from the teacher's standpoint. It is desirable that 
subject matter in relation to child needs shall be studied in 
the school room. Ample opportunity for observing the work 
of capable, experienced teachers should be given, and in ad- 
dition a certain amount of actual teaching under adequate 



The Preparation of the Teacher 259 

supervision should constitute a part of the teacher's train- 
ing. 

The viewpoint of the adult is necessary. Unfortunate is 
the teacher who forgets that "she was once a child." The 
successful teacher must seek to look at the world from the 
standpoint of the child, but she must be more than a child. 
A child leading a child is like the "blind leading the blind." 
The teacher must have in addition the point of view of the 
adult, so that she can keep her perspective with respect to 
the direction toward which she is directing the child. Dur- 
ing the training period of the teacher, therefore, it is de- 
sirable that she should secure or retain the viewpoint of the 
child, but she also should become mature and dependable. 
In faculty meetings, in a discussion of various students, a 
student who exerts a useful influence among the other 
students, a student who conducts herself in a seemly manner, 
and who practices the customs of refined people, is the one 
who is generally admired. Some students are mentioned as 
maturing very rapidly, while other students, although doing 
very satisfactory content work, mature very slowly. Fac- 
ulties occasionally hesitate to graduate girls because, al- 
though the formal requirements have been met, the girl has 
not shown the proper qualifications for leadership. 

In various ways, the necessary moral fibre can be secured. 
There is no general rule to be applied to all cases, but each 
case must be handled according to its particular require- 
ments. Girls can be forced to conform to certain require- 
ments of the school. This situation generally does not rep- 
resent real growth, but merely conformity through necessity, 
and the moment the pressure is removed, the girl reverts to 
her original attitude. It is better, therefore, to proceed 
slowly and to attempt to develop a class morale that will 
help the girl to shape her own course according to indi- 



260 The Project Method m Education 

vidual and social welfare. The development of this morale 
is dependent upon the way the teacher handles the work with 
the class. The placing of responsibility upon the pupils, 
in many instances, will bring about remarkable results. Gen- 
eral exercises can be utilized by asking certain girls to at- 
tend worth-while conventions and public gatherings, report- 
ing back to the school the results. If reliance is to be 
placed upon the girls' adopting desirable attitudes willingly 
on the basis of need, rather than unwillingly on the basis of 
policy, considerable patience must be exercised by the normal 
school teacher. Inward growth requires time. There may 
be many heartaches because some student does not seem 
to be developing rapidly enough, but results must be 
measured by actual rather than by seeming accomplishment. 
Not the least important aim in the teacher's preparation 
should be to give her desirable attitudes toward the numer- 
ous social situations in which her leadership among the 
pupils will mean so much. 

A teacher should be directed by a worthy purpose. Dur- 
ing the period that a teacher is in training she should con- 
stantly search her own heart. What are her motives for 
choosing the teaching profession? Is she in the normal 
school because she wants to be there, or has some relative or 
friend arbitrarily selected her vocation for her? Does she 
have any handicaps that permanently disqualify her from 
becoming a successful teacher? Has she selected teaching 
because of the reasonably quick and certain compensation in- 
volved, while her heart is tied up with some other line of 
work? Is she taking her work seriously or is she drifting 
through school as easily as possible, placing the responsibil- 
ity of converting her into a good teacher, upon the faculty? 
Is she a Dr. Jekyll and a Mr. Hyde, leading one type of life 
at school and another type of life during out-of-school 



The Preparation of the Teacher 261 

hours? Does she have any real interest in children? If her 
motives are unworthy, she honorably can do one of two 
things, (a) either get out of the teaching profession, or (b) 
change her attitudes and actions so as to conform to the pro- 
fessional requirements. 

Self-improvement should be a constant aim. A teacher 
should seek to understand herself. It is too much to expect 
that perfection can be attained, but introspection and an 
earnest endeavor to improve will be of invaluable assistance. 
It is well to visit other teachers to note their strong and 
weak points, not with the idea of criticising, but with the view 
of securing help in improving one's own teaching. A 
teacher's ideal of what she would like to become will al- 
ways be far ahead of her actual accomplishment. It is 
worth while to have an ideal toward which to move, "to hitch 
your wagon to a star," but working ideals which can be 
reached within a reasonable length of time should also be 
established. There is no occasion to be discouraged as long 
as one is making a serious effort to improve, and is meeting 
with a reasonable amount of success. 

Graduation from a normal school should not leave a 
girl with the impression that she has finished the training 
necessary to become a first-class teacher. In the dynamic 
teaching field the training of teachers never is completed. 
During her training period the student should have made 
progress in mastering subject matter, child-psychology, and 
herself, but she should get a vision of her teachers as stu- 
dents, who presumably are only a little farther along than 
the students. She should see that her teachers are growing, 
and that she also should continue to grow as long as she is a 
teacher. Constant vigilance and adaptation are the price of 
remaining a good teacher and of becoming a better teacher. 

Ample contact with out-of -school activities is desirable. 



262 The Project Method in Education 

The teacher's preparation should involve ample contact with 
out-of-school activities. Too frequently in the past the 
student has been trained along bookish lines, and on becom- 
ing a teacher has proceeded to teach as he was taught, 
not daring to get away from the book, because of unfamiliar- 
ity with other than book material. A teacher should be an 
intelligent reader of a daily newspaper, and should keep 
in touch with a number of good magazines, not attempting 
to read every article, but reading those articles which, ac- 
cording to her discriminating taste, seem worth while. She 
should attend various public gatherings to hear famous men, 
and to hear important public questions discussed. She 
should attend moving picture shows, dances, or other types 
of recreation in which the community engages. She should 
avoid all appearance of evil, but should be acquainted with 
the activities both good and evil of the community. She 
should not merely be a sponge attempting to absorb all that 
she can, but should seek to uplift the community in which 
she is placed. Her opportunities for social service in ad- 
dressing various meetings, teaching Sunday School classes, 
engaging in conversation, etc., will be greater than she can 
take advantage of. She carefully should evaluate the vari- 
ous ways of serving the community, and make her plans ac- 
cordingly. By keeping acquainted with current events, and 
by participating in the life of the times, the teacher will be 
able to bridge the gap between school and other social agen- 
cies more effectively. 

The danger of inbreeding, which comes from too narrow 
an experience, can be avoided, to a considerable extent, by 
out-of-school activities during the school year, and by a 
certain amount of professional work, by keeping in touch 
with others engaged in school work, and by a wise use of 
vacations and an occasional leave of absence. Many 



The Preparation of the Teacher 

teachers have an opportunity of taking correspondence work, 
or of taking extension work under some capable leader. 
Teachers, more and more, are enrolling in summer-school 
courses, securing a diversion of work and a certain amount 
of relaxation at the same time. Travel broadens a teacher's 
views very rapidly, and contributes materially in making her 
work a success. Several educational institutions offer travel 
courses, particularly in history and geography. The work 
systematically is outlined, and purposely done. 

Teaching is a desirable profession for yoimg women. 
Women, in general, are excellent teachers. There is no vo- 
cation that offers superior advantages to women, who wish 
to engage in remunerative, inspirational work, in an uplift- 
ing environment. An instinctive yearning in every normal 
woman is to have a home of her own. No woman should be 
deterred from entering the teaching profession because she 
hopes to get married within a few years, and believes that 
she would not be fair to herself or the profession, unless 
she should choose the teaching profession for life. It would 
be unfortunate indeed if a woman school teacher could never 
look forward toward married life, and it would be still more 
unfortunate if every woman who looks forward to a married 
life should refuse to teach school. In most normal schools 
this situation is squarely faced, and girls are not asked to 
teach for a longer period than they attend school, and if 
it seems to the best interest of the girl's future she is not 
required to teach at all. If a girl can devote a few years 
to the teaching profession, she not only may serve society 
in an honorable capacity, but her work is training her also 
to become a successful housewife and mother. People in 
other vocations change their work when more suitable posi- 
tions are available, and it is to be expected that teachers, 
without discredit to themselves, will act similarly. 



264 The Project Method m Education 

Respect for school teachers is increasing. Although it 
may be expected that many people will follow the teaching 
profession for a few years only, it is a pleasure to note the 
increasing number of men and women who have decided to 
consecrate their lives to school work. Such teachers are 
sparing no expense nor effort to equip themselves in the best 
possible manner. The attitude of the public toward 
teachers has changed. At one time the school board con- 
sidered it desirable to change teachers every year or two, 
under the supposition that this was the average length of 
time required for a teacher to tell all that he knew. Now 
teachers are being encouraged to stay in the service by being 
given increased compensation from year to year. Better 
and more varied equipment is being secured for the school- 
room. The public is turning to the schools for aid in the 
solution of many of its problems. As the public comes more 
and more to demand a distinctive service from the school 
teachers, it may be expected that the requirements for 
entering the profession will be raised, and the teacher may 
expect the requirements for remaining in the profession to be 
more exacting, but those "who are working for the social 
welfare in the schools, not for a salary, but while supported 
by a salary, will welcome this attitude." 

A teacher should not perform the pupils* duties in connec- 
tion with a project. Professor Hosic has submitted the 
following outline as an indication of the teacher's part in 
enabling the child to participate in a full experience through 
a problem project: 

A. Preparation. 

1. Study the subject-matter generically, that is, from the 

standpoint of control of actual life-problems, past, 

present, and prospective. 



The Preparation of the Teacher 9,65 

2. Plan for managing and carrying through the project 
about to be launched. 

B. Classroom procedure — the roles of the teacher. 

1. Make a tactful approach; create, if need be, the ap- 
propriate situation. 

2. Stimulate the pupils to define the problem, and to set 
up the end. 

3. Help and guide in the planning. 

4. Supervise, coach, inspire, lead the pupils in the ex- 
ecution of the project, including all necessary prac- 
tice, that is, drill. 

5. Direct the organization of results in the form of 
systematic knowledge and thoroughly coordinated 
habits. 

6. Encourage expression by the pupils of judgment and 
appreciation of values. 

C. Cautions. 

1. The problem-project unit is a new type of unit call- 
ing for a new method of organization. 

2. The project is not a mere formal procedure. 

3. The project is not an end in itself. 

4. Avoid waste of time through dwelling too long on 
some phase of the process. 

5. Do not expect the impossible; let pupils do all that 
they reasonably can; the teacher should supply the 
rest. 

6. Avoid an exaggerated emphasis upon liberty. 

(a) Habits of obedience should be in reserve. 

(b) Skilful stimulation is required. 

(c) A wise selection among the responses of the chil- 
dren must be made. 

7. Follow through, that is, make sure of sufficient prac- 
tice and organization always with adequate motive. 



266 The Project Method in Education 

8. Keep the outcomes in mind and be sure that the pupils 
do so. 

9. Devise adequate tests of results so that mere super- 
ficiality is avoided. (Hosic, J. Fleming. An Out- 
line of the Problem-Project Method, English Journal, 
601-602.) 

The teacher's work is a complex project. The good 
teacher in a significant degree "is not born but is made." 
Native ability must be present, but the social viewpoint re- 
quires a long period of careful training, while the problem 
of proper adaptation of material to each child is ever pres- 
ent. After a student teacher has undergone a certain amount 
of training, her project becomes greatly intensified when she 
takes charge of a group of pupils. She continues to make 
a study of herself, of the children, of society in general, and 
of materials, but a larger responsibility has been given her. 
As long as she is a teacher, her project-complex is never 
solved, but situations demanding the best reactions of which 
she is capable constantly are arising. The capable, ener- 
getic person, stirred by an aspiration to serve others, will 
find a large field of opportunity in teaching. 



. 



REFERENCES 

Chapter Two. Evolution of the Project as an Educational 

Concept. 

1. Bobbitt, Franklin. The Curriculum, 30-33. (Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co., '18.) 

2. Charters, W. W. The Project in Home Economics 
Teaching. Journal of Home Economics, X, 114-119, 
March, '18. 

3. Dennis, S. H. The Home Project in Secondary School 
Agriculture, National Educational Association, 1916, 
622-626. 

4. Holfe, D. Giving the Project Method a Trial. 
School Science and Mathematics, XVI, 763-767, Dec, 
'16. 

5. Higgins, Henry. Carrying the School Into the Home. 
The House Beautiful, XLI, 310-312, April, '17. 

6. Kilpatrick, William H. The Project Method. 
Teachers' College Record, XIX, 319-325, Sept., '18. 

7. Randall, J. A. Project Teaching. National Educa- 
tional Association, 1915, pp. 1009-1012. 

8. Snedden, David. The Project as a Teaching Unit. 
School and Society, IV, 419-423, Sept. 16, '16. 

9. Stimson, N. W. Massachusetts Home Project Plan of 
Vocational Agricultural Education, United States 
Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 8, Whole Series No. 
579, '14. 

10. Woodhull, John F. The Project Method in the Teach- 

267 



268 The Project Method in Education 

ing of Science. School and Society, VIII, 41-44, July 
13, '18. 

Chapter Three. The Relation of the Project Method to 

Instincts. 

1. Betts, George Herbert. Social Principles of Educa- 
tion, 192-231. (Charles Scribner's Sons, '13.) 

2. Colvin, S. S. & Bagley, W. C. Human Behavior, 106- 
189. (Macmillan Co., '15.) 

3. Gesell, Arnold, L. & B. C. The Normal Child and Pri- 
mary Education, 29-125. (Ginn & Co., '12.) 

4. Halleck, Reuben P. The Education of the Central 
Nervous System, 1-171. (Macmillan Co., '06.) 

5. Herrick, C. Judson. An Introduction to Neurology. 
(W. B. Saunders Co., '18.) 

6. Holmes, S. J. Studies in Animal Behavior. (Richard 
G. Badger, '16.) 

7. Kirkpatrick, Edwin A. Genetic Psychology, 16-169. 
(Macmillan Co., '11.) 

8. Miller, I. E. Education for the Needs of Life, 1-48. 
(Macmillan Co., '18.) 

9. Minot, C. S. Problem of Consciousness in Its Biologi- 
cal Aspects. Science, XVI, 1-12. 

10. Morgan, C. Lloyd. Instinct and Experience, 28-54. 
(Macmillan Co., '12.) 

11. Rusk, Robert R. Introduction to Experimental Edu- 
cation, 24-38. (Longmans Green & Co., '15.) 

12. Smith, E. M. The Investigation of Mind in Animals. 
(Cambridge at the University Press, '15.) 

13. Strayer, George D., and Norsworthy, Naomi. How 
to Teach, 13-34. (Macmillan Co., '17.) 

14. Thorndike, Edward L. Animal Intelligence, 172-240, 
282-294. (Macmillan Co., '11.) 



References 269 

15. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 43-57. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Four. The Social Basis for the Project Method. 

1. Baldwin, James M. The Individual and Society, 118- 
145. (Richard G. Badger, '11.) 

2. Bloomfield, Meyer. Youth, School, and Vocation, 1-9. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '15.) 

3. Burch, Henry Reed, & Patterson, S. Howard. Amer- 
ican Social Problems., 333-353. (Macmillan Co., '18.) 

4. Dealey, James Quayle. The Family in Its Sociological 
Aspects, 1-47. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '12.) 

5. Dewey, John and Dewey, Evelyn. Schools of To-mor- 
row, 164-229. (E. P. Dutton&Co.) 

6. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, 12-28. 
(Macmillan Co., '16.) 

7. Ellwood, Charles A. Reconstruction of Education 
upon a Social Basis. Educational Review, LVII, 110- 
120, Feb., '19. 

8. Ellwood, Charles A. An Introduction to Social Psy- 
chology, 25-51, 188-224, 224-245. (D. Appleton & 
Co., '17.) 

9. Freeman, Frank N. How Children Learn, 95-112. 
(Houghton Mifflin, '17.) 

10. Hart, Joseph K. Democracy in Education, 336-347. 
(Century Co., '18.) 

11. King, Irving. Education for Social Efficiency, 1-11. 
(D. Appleton & Co., '13.) 

12. Kirkpatrick, Edwin A. Fundamentals of Sociology, 
92-101. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '15.) 

13. Robbins, Charles L. The School as a Social Institu- 
tion, 59-99. (Allyn & Bacon, '18.) 



270 The Project Method m Education 

14. Rowe, Henry K. Society, its Origin and Development, 
91-169. (Charles Scribner's Sons, '16.) 

15. Todd, Arthur James. Theories of Social Progress, 3- 
83, 505-535. (Macmillan Co., '18.) 

16. Ward, Edward J. The Social Center. (D. Appleton 
& Co., '15.) 

17. Woodley, 0. I. & M. V. The Profession of Teaching, 
84-102 (Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

Chapter Five. The Significance of Motivation. 

1. Bagley, William Chandler. School Discipline, 238- 
252. (Macmillan Co., 1914.) 

2. Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches, 
328-334. (Houghton Mifflin Co.) 

3. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching, 100-127, 145- 
153, 194-213. (Rowe, Peterson & Co., '09.) 

4. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, 146-163. 
(Macmillan Co., '16.) 

5. Freeman, Franklin N. How Children Learn, 240-260. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

6. Home, Herman Harrell. The Philosophy of Educa- 
tion, 169-257. (Macmillan Co., '07.) 

7. Marot, Helen. The Creative Impulse in Industry, 1- 
29. (E. P. Dutton & Co., '18.) 

8. Maxwell, C. R. The Observation of Teaching, 73-78. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

9. McMurry, Charles A. Elements of General Method, 
94-162. (Macmillan Co., '03.) 

10. Pearson, Frances B. The Vitalized School. (Macmil- 
lan Co., '14.) 

11. Putnam, James J. Human Motives. (Little, Brown 
& Co., '17.) 



References 271 

12. Rowe, Stuart H. Habit Formation, 120-59. (Long- 
mans Green & Co., '10.) 

13. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 3-57. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Six. Teaching by Projects. 

1. Betts, George Herbert. Social Principles of Educa- 
tion, 95-133. (Charles Scribner's Sons, '13.) 

2. Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches, 
335-345. (Houghton Mifflin Co.) 

3. Davis, Jesse B. Vocational and Moral Guidance, 62- 
75. (Ginn & Co., '14.) 

4. Emerson, Mabel I. The Evolution of the Educational 
Ideal, 154-165. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '14.) 

5. Gowin, Enoch B. Occupations, 301-349. (Ginn & 
Co., '16.) 

6. Johnson, George E. Education Through Recreation. 
(Survey Committee of Cleveland Foundation, Cleve- 
land, '16.) 

7. Maxwell, C. R. The Observation of Teaching, 84-91. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

8. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 220-241. (Houghton Mifflin Co., 16.) 

Chapter Eight. The Project-Question. 

1. Alderman, L. R. School Credit for Home Work. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '15.) 

2. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching, 296-313. 
(Row, Peterson & Co.) 

3. Colvin, S. S. An Introduction to High School Teach- 
ing, 310-334. (Macmillan Co., '17.) 



272 The Project Method m Education 

4. De Garmo, C. Interest in Education, 179-204. (Mac- 
millan Co., '02.) 

5. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, 163-193. 
(Macmillan Co., '16.) 

6. Earhart, Lida B. Teaching Children to Study. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '09.) 

7. Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. (Houghton 
Mifflin Co., '15.) 

8. Hall, John W. & Alice C. The Question as a Factor 
in Teaching. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

9. Maxwell, C. R. The Observation of Teaching, 91-102. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

10. McMurry, F. M. How to Study. (Houghton Mifflin 
Co., '09.) 

11. Moore, E. C. What is Education? (Ginn & Co., '15.) 

12. Parker, Samuel Chester. Methods of Teaching in High 
Schools, 465-475. (Ginn & Co., '15.) 

13. Stevens, Romiett. The Question as a Measure of Effi- 
ciency in Instruction. (Teachers College, '12.) 

14. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process, 114-128. (Mac- 
millan Co., '11.) 

Chapter Ten. The Project-Problem. 

1. Branom, Mendel E. The Value of the Project-Problem 
Method in Elementary Education. Elementary School 
Journal, XVIII, 618-622, April, '18. 

2. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching, 153-170. 
(Row, Peterson & Co.) 

3. Clark, A. Bess. An Experiment in Problem Teaching, 
VI, 535-38, Oct., '17. 

4. Freeman, Frank N. How Children Learn, 212-240. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 



References 273 

. Fritz, Julia A. How a Project was Worked Out in a 
IB Room. Kindergarten and First Grade, 20-21, Jan., 
'19. 

, Henry, T. S. The Problem Method in Teaching. 
School and Home Education, XXXVI, 162-168, Feb., 
'IT. 

. Hosick, Prof. An Outline of the Problem Project 
Method. The English Journal, Nov., '18. 
King, Irving. Social Aspects of Education, 357-398. 
(Macmillan Co., '12.) 

. Lull, Herbert G. Problem Method of Instruction and 
Its Probable Correlations in Library Service and Ad- 
ministration. Nat. Ed. Ass., 1917, 562-572. 
Mayberry, L. W. Individualizing Problems for Pu- 
pils, Elem. School Teacher, XVIII, 133-137, Oct., '17. 
Mclntyre, Helen I. Giving a Purpose to Students of 
High-School English, English Journal, V, 538-541. 

. O'Neil, W. Jarold. The Problem Idea in the Teaching 
of History. Normal Instructor and Primary Plans, 
XXVI, 50-68, March, '17. 

O'Shea, M. V. Everyday Problems in Teaching, 104- 
165. (Bobbs-Merrill Co., '12.) 

Parker, Samuel Chester. Methods of Teaching in 
High Schools, 169-232. (Ginn & Co., '15.) 

. Whitney, William T. The Socialized Recitation. (A. 
S. Barnes Co., '15.) 

. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 127-132, 138-140, 163-179. (Houghton Mif- 
flin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Eleven. Manual Projects. 

1. Abbott, Lyman. The New Education, Making Farm- 
ers. Outlook, 116, 473-5, Jl 25, '17. 



274 The Project Method m Education 

2. Blackburn, Samuel A. Boy Activity Projects. (Man- 
ual Arts Press, '18.) 

3. Dopp, Katherine, E. The Place of Industries in Ele- 
mentary Education, 60-97. (University of Chicago 
Press, '02.) 

4. Freeman, Frank N. How Children Learn, 127-157. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '17.) 

5. Funkhouser, E. A. Projects in Farm Mechanics. (John 
Tarleton Agricultural College, Stephenville, Texas.) 

6. Giese, W. Agriculture Correlated with Manual Train- 
ing. Industrial Arts Mag., VI, 477-9, D '17. 

7. Groszmann, Maximilian P. E. Some Fundamental Veri- 
ties in Education, 19-50. (Richard G. Badger, '11.) 

8. Home Project Work in Vocational Home Economics in 
Secondary Schools, Journal of Home Economics X, 
358-362, Ag., '18. 

9. Home Project as a Phase of Vocational Education, 
Bulletin No. 21. (Federal Board for Vocational Edu- 
cation.) 

10. Jackson, L. L. Project Sinning and Sinned Against. 
Industrial Arts Mag., VII, 138-9, Ap., '18. 

11. Lane, C. H. Aims and Methods of Project Work in 
Secondary Agriculture. School Science and Mathe- 
matics, XVII, 805-10, D., '17. 

12. Moore, J. C. Progressive Project Science. School 
Science and Mathematics, XVI, 686-690, M., '16. 

13. O'Shea, M. V. Everyday Problems in Teaching, 166- 
235. (Bobbs-Merrill Co., '12.) 

14. Stimson, N. W. The Massachusetts Home Project 
Plan of Vocational Agricultural Education, Supt. of 
Documents, Bull. 579, '14. 

15. Twiss, Geo. Ft. Principles of Science Teaching. (Mac- 
millan Co., '17.) 



References 275 

16. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 185-220. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Thirteen. The Project Method in History. 

1. Branom, M. E. The Project Problem Method in the 
Teaching of the History of Missouri. Mo. School 
Jour., XXXV., Feb., '18. 

2. Brown, H. G. Dramatization in History Teaching. 
Elem. School Teacher, XIII, 425-433. 

3. Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches, 
241-265. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '13.) 

4. Freeman, Frank Nugent. The Psychology of the Com- 
mon Branches, 133-161. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

5. Hinsdale, B. A. How to Study and Teach History, 18- 
27, 53-67, 67-75, 101-110. (D. Appleton & Co., '02.) 

6. Jaeger, Dr. Oskar. The Teaching of History, 1-14. 
(A. C. McClurg & Co., '15.) 

7. Johnson, Henry. Teaching of History, 28-84, 202- 
225. (Macmillan Co., '16.) 

8. Mace, William H. Method in History, 1-21, 27- 
42, 255-269, 269-309. (Ginn & Co., 1897.) 

9. Robinson, James Harvey. The New History, 1-26, 
236-266. (Macmillan Co., '12.) 

10. Wayland, John W. How to Teach American History, 
10-17, 32-45, 152-161. (Macmillan Co., '08.) 

11. McMurry, Charles A. Special Method in History, 1- 
34. (Macmillan Co., '08.) 

12. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 101-133 (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Fourteen. The Project Method in Geography. 

1. Branom, M. E. The Project-Problem Method in Ge- 
ography. Journ. of Geogr., XVI, 333-8, May, '18. 



276 The Project Method m Education 

2. Chamberlain, J. F. Geography in the Life of the Pu- 
pil. Nat. Ed. Ass., 1907, 497-504. 

3. Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches, 
216-240. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '13.) 

4. Dodge, R. E. & Kirchwey, C. B. The Teaching of 
Geography in Elementary Schools, 1-60, 193-217. 
(Rand McNally & Co., '13.) 

5. Freeman, Frank Nugent. The Psychology of the Com- 
mon Branches, 132-161. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

6. Holtz, Frederick L. Principles and Methods of the 
Teaching of Geography, 1-20, 30-60. (Macmillan Co., 
'14.) 

7. Kendall, Calvin N. & Mirick, George A. How to Teach 
the Fundamental Subjects, 224-252. (Houghton Mif- 
flin Co., '15.) 

8. Stockton, J. L. Principle of Revision of a Course of 
Study Applied to Geography, Elem. Sch. Teacher, 
XIII, 219-223. 

9. Sutherland, Wm. J. The Teaching of Geography, 17- 
27, 80-95, 137-160. (Scott Foresman & Co.) 

10. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. The Motivation of School 
Work, 133-158. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '16.) 

Chapter Fifteen. The Reorganization of the Course of 

Study. 

1. Barnett, P. A. Common Sense in Education, 94-114. 
(Longmans Green & Co., '02.) 

2. Bobbitt, Franklin. What the Schools Teach and Might 
Teach. (Cleveland Education Survey, '15.) 

3. Bobbitt, Franklin. The Curriculum, 41-55, 177-199. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co., '18.) 



References $77 

Betts, George Herbert. Social Principles of Educa- 
tion, 231-291. (Charles Scribner's Sons, '13.) 
Cubberley, Ellwood P. Changing Conceptions of Edu- 
cation. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '09.) 
Davis, Jesse B. Vocational and Moral Guidance, 112- 
119. (D. Appleton & Co., '16.) 

Dewey, John & Dewey, Evelyn. Schools of To-mor- 
row, 60-103. (E. P. Dutton & Co., '15.) 
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, 212-243, 
271-291. (Macmillan Co., '16.) 

Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching, 1-16. (Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co., '15.) 

Gilbert, C. B. What Children Study and Why, 1-13, 
247-291. ( Silver, Burdett & Co., '13. ) 
Hollingworth, H. L. Vocational Psychology, 174-208. 
(Macmillan Co., '16.) 

King, Irving. Education for Social Efficiency. (D. 
Appleton & Co., '13.) 

Marot, Helen. The Creative Impulse in Industry, 108- 
146. (E. P. Dutton & Co., '18.) 

Miller, I. E. Education for the Needs of Life, 155- 
199 (Macmillan Co., '18.) 

Rapeer, Louis W. Prospective Elementary Education, 
552-71. (Charles Scribner's Sons, '17.) 
Robbins, Charles L. The School as a Social Institu- 
tion, 308-383. (Allyn & Bacon, '18.) 
Rice, Dr. J. M. Scientific Management in Education, 
37-53, 220-250. (Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, '13.) 
Sleight, W. G. Educational Values and Methods, 194- 
256. (Clarendon Press, '15.) 

Snedden, David. Problems of Educational Readjust- 
ment, 1-33. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '13.) 



278 The Project Method m Education 

20. Yocum, A Duncan. Culture, Discipline and Democ- 
racy, 179-191. (Christopher Sower Co., '13.) 

Chapter Sixteen. The Preparation of the Teacher. 

1. Bagley, William C. Craftsmanship in Teaching, 229- 
247. (Macmillan Co., '11.) 

2. Barnett, P. A. Common Sense in Education, 289-310. 
(Longmans Green & Co., '02.) 

3. Dutton, Samuel T. School Management, 16-49. 
(Charles Scribner's Sons, '04.) 

4. Hyde, William DeWitt. The Teacher's Philosophy in 
and out of School. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '10.) 

15. Ladd, G. T. The Teacher's Practical Philosophy, 267- 
331. (Funk & Wagnalls Co., '11.) 

6. Maxwell, C. R. The Observation of Teaching, 33-44. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co, '17.) 

7. Miller, I. E. Education for the Needs of Life, 296- 
347. (Macmillan Co., '18.) 

8. Palmer, George H. The Ideal Teacher. (Houghton 
Mifflin Co., '10.) 

9. Robbins, Charles L. The School as a Social Institu- 
tion, 419-457. (Allyn & Bacon, '18.) 

10. Rowe, Stuart L. Habit Formation, 1-10. (Long- 
mans Green & Co., '11.) 

11. Ruediger, William Carl. The Principles of Education, 
1-20. (Houghton Mifflin Co., '10.) 

12. Thorndike, Edward L. Education, 245-261. (Mac- 
millan, '12.) 



INDEX 



Acceleration of good geography 
teaching, 224 

Activities, adapting to social re- 
quirements, 73-4 

Activities of teacher out of school, 
261-3 

Adult, viewpoint of, 259-60 

Advantages of project problems, 
162-3 

.Esthetic projects, 120 

Aids in problem solving, 163-4 

Aims of education, 63-4 

Analysis of society, 214 

Animals and plants, evolution of, 
51-2 

Arithmetic, drill work in, 98 

Art, 21 

Behavior, influenced by mental 

projects, 196-7 
Birthdays, motivation through, 

94-5 
Bobbitt, Franklin, conception of 

project, 38-40 
Breadth of view, 256 

Charters, W. W., 41-42 

Child, emphasis upon, 64-5 

Child, limitations placed upon, 

21-3 
Childhood, restlessness of, J6 
Children, understanding of, 257-9 
Chronological order, 94 
Chronological problems in history, 

215-217. 
Civilization, dependence on proj- 
ects, 60 
Classification of projects, 108-22 
Complexity of modern institutions, 

66-7 
Concept of city, 175-7 
Concepts represented by same 
word, 29-30 



Consciousness and the physical 

body, 250-51 
Correlation of interests of child 

and subject matter, 65-6 
Course of study, 240-54 
Culture epoch theory, 67 
Current events in geography, 

233-5; use of, 912 

Dairying, motivating topic on, 

91 
Debating in history, 217-8 
Dennis, S. H., conception of proj- 
ect, 33-4 
Departmental work, 242-3 
Development, Basis for, 23-24 
Devices, motivation not merely, 

103 
Dewey, John, 70-82 
Difficult problems, 147-8 
Difficulties, assistance in meeting, 

133-4 
Difficulty of securing suitable 

project problems, 151-2 
Discipline, 79-8 
Discussion of ' project-problems, 

159 
District schools, consolidation of, 

35-6 
Drills, necessity of, 251; on basis 

of need, 76 
Drver, Charles, modern geography, 

220-1 

Economic geography, 230 

Education, 21, 63-4 

Enioyment, reading history for, 
205 

Environment, effects of, 18; fa- 
vorable for development, 16-17; 
maximally suitable for the child, 
47-9 

Eskimo, type study of, 15-16 



279 



280 



Index 



Evolution of plants and animals, 
51-2 

Expansion of the United States, 
224-5 

Experiences, good and bad, 18 

Experiences of child with institu- 
tions, 71-2 

Expressions and impressions, 25 

Fact material, value of, 146-7 
Failures in school work, 17-18 
Fairgrieve, James, definition of 

history, 111 
Family, 20 
Feelings, 25 
Field of knowledge, 89 
Form of project problem, 149 
Free ideas, 58 
Freeman, Frank N., development 

of the child, 148 

Geography, motivation of, 89 

Government, 20 

Grading grain, 182 

Grading problems, 147 

Groups of problems in history, 

214-5 
Group problems, 161 

Habits, 96-7 

History, motivation of, 92-3 

Holidays, motivation through, 93 

Home project work in Massachu- 
setts, 185-8 

Hosic, James F., the school cur- 
riculum, 253-4 ; a teacher's duties, 
264-6 

Human being, natural method of 
developing, 15 

Human being, thought processes in 
contrast to monkeys, 56-8 

Ideals, changing, 26-7 
Illustrations of informational and 

interpretative questions, 138-40 
Illustrations of problem projects, 

165-7; in history, 211-214 
Imaginary journeys, 144 
Importance of project problems 

increasingly being recognized, 

161-2 
Impressions and expressions, 25 
Individual problem work, 160-1 



Industrial projects, 181-2 

Industry, 19-20 

Informational history projects, 
207 

Information, relation to project 
question, 136-7 

Initiative, smothering, 135 

Instincts, dependence of intellec- 
tualized activities upon, 59 ; func- 
tioning of, 59; kinds of, 59; re- 
lation to project method, 50; 
strong, 58 

Institutions, relations of, 18-22; 
shaping policies of, 71 

Interest, strong initial, 82-4; con- 
tinued, 84-7; concluding, 87-8. 

Interests, acquired, 72-3; encour- 
aging and discouraging, 72 

Interpretation of facts, 137; of 
material, 24 

Interpretative problem, 207-11 

Jackson, L. L., Practical arts proj- 
ects, 178-80 

Jaeger, Oskar, organization of his- 
tory, 203 

Joliet and Marquette, motivation 
journey of, 318-9 

Journey geography, 85-7, 236 

Kendall and Stryker, problems in 

history, 210-11 
Kilpatrick, Wm, H., classes of 

projects, 113-5 

Leaders or followers, 134 
Leisure occupations, 110-12 
Lesson types in geography, 228-9 
Lesson type, project as a, 47 
Limited use of project problems, 

148-9 
Little Compton Commons, consoli- 
dation of schools, 35-6 
Local geographic material, 229 
Local material for motivation, 239 
Logical organization of geography, 

239 
Lull, Herbert G., supervised study, 
157-8 

Manual dexterity, relation to mo- 
tivation, 99-100 
Manual projects, 115-7 



Index 



281 



Massachusetts, home project plans 

of, 36-8 
Material, difficult, 17-18 
McMurry, Charles A., Organization 

of history, 203-4 
Meaning of modern geography, 

220-3 
Mental projects, 117-20 
Missouri, southeast, problems on, 

152-5 
Misuse of problems, 164-5 
Monkey, ability to think, 53-4 
Motivation in history, 218-9 
Motivation, maximum, 8 

Needs of man becoming uniform, 

226 
Nervous system, functions of, 55-6; 

very complex, 54-5 
Newspaper in geography, 231-3 

Organisms, simple, 53 
Organization by subjects, 241-2 
Organization, working toward, 76 

Panama canal, reproduction of, 183 

Parker, S. C., problem solving, 
156-7 

Personal appeals, 97-8 

Personal versus social motives, 
180-1 

Personal world, basis for further 
development, 14-15 

Practical arts projects, 177-8 

Preparation of teacher, 255-66 

Physical basis of conscious exist- 
ence, 50-51 

Physical environment and life 
forms, 222-3 

Physical geography, 229-230 

Physical projects, advantages of, 
173; importance of, 172-3; na- 
ture of, 171 

Plants and animals, evolution of, 
95-6 

Present rather than past, 202-3 

Primary grades, manual projects 
in, 174-5 

Problems, conception of, 145; mo- 
tivating the, 15 

Progress in history teaching, 219 

Progress of man, 200 

Project-complex, 130-2 



Project-exercise, 141-4 

Project method, economical utili- 
zation of, 47-9 

Project of life, 169 

Project-problem, 128-30, 145-70 

Project-question, 124-5 

Project, relation to child's inter- 
ests and needs, 69 

Projects, abuse of, 15-18; concep- 
tion of, David Snedden, 30-32; 
W. W. Charters, 41-2; Wm. H. 
Kilpatrick, 42-5; J. A. Randall, 
32-3; S. H. Dennis, 33-4; John 
F. Woodhull, 45-7; Franklin 
Bobbitt, 38-40; four factors of, 
18; good and bad, 7, 18; in after 
school life, 183-4; use of, 2 

Provincialism, 200-2 

Pupil, overhelping, 134 

Pupil's versus the teacher's project, 
68-9 

Purpose, 197-8 ; directed by worthy, 
260; relation to type of motiva- 
tion, 227-8 

Question asking, 135-6 
Questions, 124-8, 133-40 

Randall, J. A., conception of a 
project, 32-3 

Reasoning ability, importance of, 
59-60 

Recitation, motivation during, 88-9 

Reevaluation of subject matter, 
246-7 

Reflective thinking, 149 

Relations with environment, 79 

Relative emphasis of project types, 
121-2 

Religion, 20-21 

Resources of earth unequally dis- 
tributed, 225-6 

Respect for school teachers, 264 

Responses, 25-6 

Restrictions placed on children, 71 

Rural pupils, projects for, 184-5 

School life in relation to out of 
school life, 189-90, 245-6 

School, responsibility for motiva- 
tion in, 102-3 

Schools, adapted to social require- 
ments, 75 



/ 



282 



Index 



V#JL 



Schools and a possible hereafter, 

50-1 
School work, discontinuing, 17-18 
Securing a project problem, 152-4 
Self-improvement, 261 
Shop for manual projects, 182 
Short cuts in learning, 198 
Similar topics, dangers of, 15-17 
Sinkholes, motivating topic of, 90-1 
Situation, motivating, 100-1; or- 
ganizing a course of study about, 
249-51 
Snedden, David, conception of 

project, 30-2 
Socializing the child, 243-4 
Social versus personal motives, 

180-1 
Solution of project problems, 159- 

60 
Solving a project problem, 154-6 
South America, suggestive prob- 
lems on, 236-8 
Specialization of labor narrowing, 

110 
Steps in problem solving, 167-9 
Stimulus received by geography, 

220 
Subject matter, emphasis placed 

upon, 64-5 
Supervised study, 157-8 
Supervision of special subjects, 
243 



Teaching a desirable profession, 
263-4; lessening burdens of, 
252-3; motivating work, 101; re- 
sponsibility of, 27 
Teacher's versus pupil's projects, 

68-9 
Teacher, viewpoint of, 24-6 
Terminology of pedagogy, 29-30 
Thorn dike, Edward L., the way a 

monkey learns, 56-8 
Thorough preparation, 253-6 
Training of the teacher, 256-7 
Training in meeting situations; 

67-8 
Types of projects, difficulties of 
distinguishing, 132 

Unit of Activity, 14 

War, effects of, 248-9 

Waste in school room practice, 
15-17 

Wheat, organization of topic on, 
84 

Wholeheartedness a relative mat- 
ter, 47 

Wilson, H. B. & G. M., 81-2 

Word, project, 1-2 

Words, varying meanings of, 29-30 

World of child changed, 26-7 

World of the child, 75-6 

World war, 204 




r 



